thumb thumb In the context of spaceflight, a satellite is an object which has been placed into orbit by human endeavor. Such objects are sometimes called artificial satellites to distinguish them from natural satellites such as the Moon. The first artificial satellite, Sputnik 1, was launched by the Soviet Union in 1957. By 2009 thousands of satellites had been launched into orbit around the Earth. These originate from more than 50 countries and have used the satellite launching capabilities of ten nations. A few hundred satellites are currently operational, whereas thousands of unused satellites and satellite fragments orbit the Earth as space debris. A few space probes have been placed into orbit around other bodies and become artificial satellites to the Moon, Venus, Mars, Jupiter and Saturn. Satellites are used for a large number of purposes. Common types include military (spy) and civilian Earth observation satellites, communication satellites, navigation satellites, weather satellites, and research satellites. Space stations and human spacecraft in orbit are also satellites. Satellite orbits vary greatly, depending on the purpose of the satellite, and are classified in a number of ways. Well-known (overlapping) classes include low Earth orbit, polar orbit, and geostationary orbit. Satellites are usually semi-independent computer controlled systems. Satellite subsystems attend many tasks, such as power generation, thermal control, telemetry, attitude control and orbit control.

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History

Early conceptions

The first fictional depiction of a satellite being launched into orbit is a short story by Edward Everett Hale, The Brick Moon . The story is serialized in The Atlantic Monthly , starting in 1869. ^{[1] [2]} The idea surfaces again in Jules Verne's The Begum's Fortune (1879).

In 1903 Konstantin Tsiolkovsky (1857–1935) published The Exploration of Cosmic Space by Means of Reaction Devices (in Russian: ???????????? ??????? ??????????? ??????????? ????????? ), which is the first academic treatise on the use of rocketry to launch spacecraft. He calculated the orbital speed required for a minimal orbit around the Earth at 8 km/s, and that a multi-stage rocket fueled by liquid propellants could be used to achieve this. He proposed the use of liquid hydrogen and liquid oxygen, though other combinations can be used.

In 1935 Slovenian Herman Potocnik (1930–1896) published his sole book, The Problem of Space Travel — The Rocket Motor (German: Das Problem der Befahrung des Weltraums — der Raketen-Motor ), a plan for a breakthrough into space and a permanent human presence there. He conceived of a space station in detail and calculated its geostationary orbit. He described the use of orbiting spacecraft for detailed peaceful and military observation of the ground and described how the special conditions of space could be useful for scientific experiments. The book described geostationary satellites (first put forward by Tsiolkovsky) and discussed communication between them and the ground using radio, but fell short of the idea of using satellites for mass broadcasting and as telecommunications relays.

In a 1945 Wireless World article the English science fiction writer Arthur C. Clarke (1917-2008) described in detail the possible use of communications satellites for mass communications. ^[3] Clarke examined the logistics of satellite launch, possible orbits and other aspects of the creation of a network of world-circling satellites, pointing to the benefits of high-speed global communications. He also suggested that three geostationary satellites would provide coverage over the entire planet.

History of artificial satellites

thumb: The first artificial satellite The first artificial satellite was Sputnik 1, launched by the Soviet Union on 4 October 1957, and initiating the Soviet Sputnik program, with Sergei Korolev as chief designer and Kerim Kerimov as his assistant. ^[4] This in turn triggered the Space Race between the Soviet Union and the United States.

Sputnik 1 helped to identify the density of high atmospheric layers through measurement of its orbital change and provided data on radio-signal distribution in the ionosphere. Because the satellite's body was filled with pressurized nitrogen, Sputnik 1 also provided the first opportunity for meteoroid detection, as a loss of internal pressure due to meteoroid penetration of the outer surface would have been evident in the temperature data sent back to Earth. The unanticipated announcement of Sputnik 1 's success precipitated the Sputnik crisis in the United States and ignited the so-called Space Race within the Cold War.

Sputnik 2 was launched on November 3, 1957 and carried the first living passenger into orbit, a dog named Laika. ^[5]

In May, 1946, Project RAND had released the Preliminary Design of a Experimental World-Circling Spaceship, which stated, "A satellite vehicle with appropriate instrumentation can be expected to be one of the most potent scientific tools of the Twentieth Century. ^[6] The United States had been considering launching orbital satellites since 1945 under the Bureau of Aeronautics of the United States Navy. The United States Air Force's Project RAND eventually released the above report, but did not believe that the satellite was a potential military weapon; rather, they considered it to be a tool for science, politics, and propaganda. In 1954, the Secretary of Defense stated, "I know of no American satellite program." ^[7]

On July 29, 1955, the White House announced that the U.S. intended to launch satellites by the spring of 1958. This became known as Project Vanguard. On July 31, the Soviets announced that they intended to launch a satellite by the fall of 1957.

Following pressure by the American Rocket Society, the National Science Foundation, and the International Geophysical Year, military interest picked up and in early 1955 the Air Force and Navy were working on Project Orbiter, which involved using a Jupiter C rocket to launch a satellite. The project succeeded, and Explorer 1 became the United States' first satellite on January 31, 1958. ^[8]

In June 1961, three-and-a-half years after the launch of Sputnik 1, the Air Force used resources of the United States Space Surveillance Network to catalog 115 Earth-orbiting satellites. ^[9]

The largest artificial satellite currently orbiting the Earth is the International Space Station. nasa

Space Surveillance Network

The United States Space Surveillance Network (SSN) has been tracking space objects since 1957 when the Soviets opened the space age with the launch of Sputnik I. Since then, the SSN has tracked more than 26,000 space objects orbiting Earth. The SSN currently tracks more than 8,000 man-made orbiting objects. The rest have re-entered Earth's turbulent atmosphere and disintegrated, or survived re-entry and impacted the Earth. The space objects now orbiting Earth range from satellites weighing several tons to pieces of spent rocket bodies weighing only 10 pounds. About seven percent of the space objects are operational satellites (i.e. ~560 satellites), the rest are space debris. ^[10] USSTRATCOM is primarily interested in the active satellites, but also tracks space debris which upon reentry might otherwise be mistaken for incoming missiles. The SSN tracks space objects that are 10 centimeters in diameter (baseball size) or larger.

Non-Military Satellite Services

There are three basic categories of non-military satellite services: ^[11]

Fixed Satellite Service

Fixed satellite services handle hundreds of billions of voice, data, and video transmission tasks across all countries and continents between certain points on the earth’s surface.

Mobile Satellite Systems

Mobile satellite systems help connect remote regions, vehicles, ships, people and aircraft to other parts of the world and/or other mobile or stationary communications units, in addition to serving as navigation systems.

Scientific Research Satellite (commercial and noncommercial)

Scientific research satellites provide us with meteorological information, land survey data (e.g., remote sensing), Amateur (HAM) Radio, and other different scientific research applications such as earth science, marine science, and atmospheric research.

Types

• Anti-Satellite weapons/"Killer Satellites" are satellites that are armed, designed to take out enemy warheads, satellites, other space assets. They may have particle weapons, energy weapons, kinetic weapons, nuclear and/or conventional missiles and/or a combination of these weapons.
• Astronomical satellites are satellites used for observation of distant planets, galaxies, and other outer space objects.
• Biosatellites are satellites designed to carry living organisms, generally for scientific experimentation.
• Communications satellites are satellites stationed in space for the purpose of telecommunications. Modern communications satellites typically use geosynchronous orbits, Molniya orbits or Low Earth orbits.
• Miniaturized satellites are satellites of unusually low weights and small sizes. ^[12] New classifications are used to categorize these satellites: minisatellite (500–100 kg), microsatellite (below 100 kg), nanosatellite (below 10 kg).
• Navigational satellites are satellites which use radio time signals transmitted to enable mobile receivers on the ground to determine their exact location. The relatively clear line of sight between the satellites and receivers on the ground, combined with ever-improving electronics, allows satellite navigation systems to measure location to accuracies on the order of a few meters in real time.
• Reconnaissance satellites are Earth observation satellite or communications satellite deployed for military or intelligence applications.Very little is known about the full power of these satellites, as governments who operate them usually keep information pertaining to their reconnaissance satellites classified.
• Earth observation satellites are satellites intended for non-military uses such as environmental monitoring, meteorology, map making etc. (See especially Earth Observing System.)
• Space stations are man-made structures that are designed for human beings to live on in outer space. A space station is distinguished from other manned spacecraft by its lack of major propulsion or landing facilities — instead, other vehicles are used as transport to and from the station. Space stations are designed for medium-term living in orbit, for periods of weeks, months, or even years.
• Tether satellites are satellites which are connected to another satellite by a thin cable called a tether.
• Weather satellites are primarily used to monitor Earth's weather and climate. ^[13]

Orbit types

NO, this is a summary OLD: seems essentially an exact duplication -->



The first satellite, Sputnik 1, was put into orbit around Earth and was therefore in geocentric orbit. By far this is the most common type of orbit with approximately 2456 artificial satellites orbiting the Earth. Geocentric orbits may be further classified by their altitude, inclination and eccentricity.

The commonly used altitude classifications are Low Earth Orbit (LEO), Medium Earth Orbit (MEO) and High Earth Orbit (HEO). Low Earth orbit is any orbit below 2000 km, and Medium Earth Orbit is any orbit higher than that but still below the altitude for geosynchronous orbit at 35786 km. High Earth Orbit is any orbit higher than the altitude for geosynchronous orbit.

Centric classifications

• Galactocentric orbit : An orbit about the center of a galaxy. Earth's sun follows this type of orbit about the galactic center of the Milky Way.
• Heliocentric orbit : An orbit around the Sun. In our Solar System, all planets, comets, and asteroids are in such orbits, as are many artificial satellites and pieces of space debris. Moons by contrast are not in a heliocentric orbit but rather orbit their parent planet.
• Geocentric orbit : An orbit around the planet Earth, such as the Moon or artificial satellites. Currently there are approximately 2465 artificial satellites orbiting the Earth.
• Areocentric orbit : An orbit around the planet Mars, such as moons or artificial satellites.

Altitude classifications

• Low Earth Orbit (LEO) : Geocentric orbits ranging in altitude from 0–2000 km (0–1240 miles)
• Medium Earth Orbit (MEO) : Geocentric orbits ranging in altitude from 2000 km (1240 miles) to just below geosynchronous orbit at 35786 km (22240 miles). Also known as an intermediate circular orbit.
• High Earth Orbit (HEO) : Geocentric orbits above the altitude of geosynchronous orbit 35786 km (22240 miles).

Inclination classifications

• Inclined orbit : An orbit whose inclination in reference to the equatorial plane is not zero degrees.
• * Polar orbit : An orbit that passes above or nearly above both poles of the planet on each revolution. Therefore it has an inclination of (or very close to) 90 degrees.
• * Polar sun synchronous orbit : A nearly polar orbit that passes the equator at the same local time on every pass. Useful for image taking satellites because shadows will be nearly the same on every pass.

Eccentricity classifications

• Circular orbit : An orbit that has an eccentricity of 0 and whose path traces a circle.
• * Hohmann transfer orbit : An orbital maneuver that moves a spacecraft from one circular orbit to another using two engine impulses. This maneuver was named after Walter Hohmann.
• Elliptic orbit : An orbit with an eccentricity greater than 0 and less than 1 whose orbit traces the path of an ellipse.
• * Geosynchronous transfer orbit : An elliptic orbit where the perigee is at the altitude of a Low Earth Orbit (LEO) and the apogee at the altitude of a geosynchronous orbit.
• * Geostationary transfer orbit : An elliptic orbit where the perigee is at the altitude of a Low Earth Orbit (LEO) and the apogee at the altitude of a geostationary orbit.
• * Molniya orbit : A highly elliptic orbit with inclination of 63.4° and orbital period of half of a sidereal day (roughly 12 hours). Such a satellite spends most of its time over a designated area of the planet.
• * Tundra orbit : A highly elliptic orbit with inclination of 63.4° and orbital period of one sidereal day (roughly 24 hours). Such a satellite spends most of its time over a designated area of the planet.
• Hyperbolic orbit : An orbit with the eccentricity greater than 1. Such an orbit also has a velocity in excess of the escape velocity and as such, will escape the gravitational pull of the planet and continue to travel infinitely.
• Parabolic orbit : An orbit with the eccentricity equal to 1. Such an orbit also has a velocity equal to the escape velocity and therefore will escape the gravitational pull of the planet and travel until its velocity relative to the planet is 0. If the speed of such an orbit is increased it will become a hyperbolic orbit.
• * Escape orbit (EO) : A high-speed parabolic orbit where the object has escape velocity and is moving away from the planet.
• * Capture orbit : A high-speed parabolic orbit where the object has escape velocity and is moving toward the planet.

Synchronous classifications

• Synchronous orbit : An orbit where the satellite has an orbital period equal to the average rotational period (earth's is: 23 hours, 56 minutes, 4.091 seconds) of the body being orbited and in the same direction of rotation as that body. To a ground observer such a satellite would trace an analemma (figure 8) in the sky.
• Semi-synchronous orbit (SSO) : An orbit with an altitude of approximately 20200 km (12544.2 miles) and an orbital period equal to one-half of the average rotational period (earth's is approximately 12 hours) of the body being orbited
• Geosynchronous orbit (GEO) : Orbits with an altitude of approximately 35786 km (22240 miles). Such a satellite would trace an analemma (figure 8) in the sky.
• * Geostationary orbit (GSO) : A geosynchronous orbit with an inclination of zero. To an observer on the ground this satellite would appear as a fixed point in the sky. ^[14]
• ** Clarke orbit : Another name for a geostationary orbit. Named after scientist and writer Arthur C. Clarke.
• * Supersynchronous orbit : A disposal / storage orbit above GSO/GEO. Satellites will drift west. Also a synonym for Disposal orbit.
• * Subsynchronous orbit : A drift orbit close to but below GSO/GEO. Satellites will drift east.
• * Graveyard orbit : An orbit a few hundred kilometers above geosynchronous that satellites are moved into at the end of their operation.
• ** Disposal orbit : A synonym for graveyard orbit.
• ** Junk orbit : A synonym for graveyard orbit.
• Areosynchronous orbit : A synchronous orbit around the planet Mars with an orbital period equal in length to Mars' sidereal day, 24.6229 hours.
• Areostationary orbit (ASO) : A circular areosynchronous orbit on the equatorial plane and about 17000 km(10557 miles) above the surface. To an observer on the ground this satellite would appear as a fixed point in the sky.
• Heliosynchronous orbit : An heliocentric orbit about the Sun where the satellite's orbital period matches the Sun's period of rotation. These orbits occur at a radius of 24,360 Gm (0,1628 AU) around the Sun, a little less than half of the orbital radius of Mercury.

Special classifications

• Sun-synchronous orbit : An orbit which combines altitude and inclination in such a way that the satellite passes over any given point of the planets's surface at the same local solar time. Such an orbit can place a satellite in constant sunlight and is useful for imaging, spy, and weather satellites.
• Moon orbit : The orbital characteristics of earth's moon. Average altitude of 384403 kilometres (238857 mi), elliptical-inclined orbit.

Pseudo-orbit classifications

• Horseshoe orbit : An orbit that appears to a ground observer to be orbiting a certain planet but is actually in co-orbit with the planet. See asteroids 3753 (Cruithne) and 2002 AA₂₉.
• Exo-orbit : A maneuver where a spacecraft approaches the height of orbit but lacks the velocity to sustain it.
• * Suborbital spaceflight : A synonym for exo-orbit.
• Lunar transfer orbit (LTO)
• Prograde orbit : An orbit with an inclination of less than 90°. Or rather, an orbit that is in the same direction as the rotation of the primary.
• Retrograde orbit : An orbit with an inclination of more than 90°. Or rather, an orbit counter to the direction of rotation of the planet. Apart from those in sun-synchronous orbit, few satellites are launched into retrograde orbit because the quantity of fuel required to launch them is much greater than for a prograde orbit. This is because when the rocket starts out on the ground, it already has an eastward component of velocity equal to the rotational velocity of the planet at its launch latitude.
• Halo orbit and Lissajous orbit : Orbits "around" Lagrangian points.

Satellite Modules

The satellite’s functional versatility is imbedded within its technical components and its operations characteristics. Looking at the “anatomy” of a typical satellite, one discovers two modules. Note that some novel architectural concepts such as Fractionated Spacecraft somewhat upset this taxonomy.

Spacecraft bus or service module

This bus module consist of the following subsystems:

• The Structural Subsystems

The structural subsystem provides the mechanical base structure, shields the satellite from extreme temperature changes and micro-meteorite damage, and controls the satellite’s spin functions.

• The Telemetry Subsystems (aka Command and Data Handling, C&DH)

The telemetry subsystem monitors the on-board equipment operations, transmits equipment operation data to the earth control station, and receives the earth control station’s commands to perform equipment operation adjustments.

• The Power Subsystems

The power subsystem consists of solar panels and backup batteries that generate power when the satellite passes into the earth’s shadow. Nuclear power sources (Radioisotope thermoelectric generators) have been used in several successful satellite programs including the Nimbus program (1964-1978). ^[15]

• '''The Thermal Control Subsystems

The thermal control subsystem helps protect electronic equipment from extreme temperatures due to intense sunlight or the lack of sun exposure on different sides of the satellite’s body (e.g. Optical Solar Reflector)

• '''The Attitude and Orbit Controlled Control Subsystems

The attitude and orbit controlled subsystem consists of small rocket thrusters that keep the satellite in the correct orbital position and keep antennas positioning in the right directions.

Communication payload

The second major module is the communication payload, which is made up of transponders. A transponders is capable of :

• Receiving uplinked radio signals from earth satellite transmission stations (antennas).
• Amplifying received radio signals
• Sorting the input signals and directing the output signals through input/output signal multiplexers to the proper downlink antennas for retransmission to earth satellite receiving stations (antennas).

End of life

When satellites reach the end of their mission, satellite operators have the option of de-orbiting the satellite, leaving the satellite in its current orbit or moving the satellite to a graveyard orbit. Historically, due to budgetary constraints at the beginning of satellite missions, satellites were rarely designed to be de-orbited. One example of this practice is the satellite Vanguard 1. Launched in 1958, Vanguard 1, the 4th manmade satellite put in Geocentric orbit, was still in orbit as of August 2009. ^[16]

Instead of being de-orbited, most satellites are either left in their current orbit or moved to a graveyard orbit. ^[17] As of 2002, the FCC now requires all geostationary satellites to commit to moving to a graveyard orbit at the end of their operational life prior to launch. ^[18]

Launch-capable countries

This list includes countries with an independent capability to place satellites in orbit, including production of the necessary launch vehicle. Note: many more countries have the capability to design and build satellites — which relatively speaking, does not require much economic, scientific and industrial capacity — but are unable to launch them, instead relying on foreign launch services. This list does not consider those numerous countries, but only lists those capable of launching satellites indigenously, and the date this capability was first demonstrated. Does not include consortium satellites or multi-national satellites.

Order	Country	Year of first launch	Rocket	Satellite
1		1957	Sputnik-PS	Sputnik 1
2		1958	Juno I	Explorer 1
3	collapsed	1965	Diamant	Astérix
4		1970	Lambda-4S	Osumi
5		1970	Long March 1	Dong Fang Hong I
6		1971	Black Arrow	Prospero X-3
7		1980	SLV	Rohini
8		1988	Shavit	Ofeq 1
-	[1	1992	Soyuz-U
-	[1	1992	Tsyklon-3	Strela (x3, Russian)
9 |align="left"| History of Iran Empires of Persia Kings of Persia BCE Sialk civilization 7500–1000 Jiroft civilization (Aratta) 4000–? Proto-Elamite civilization 3200–2800 Elamite dynasties 2800–550 Kassites 16th–12th cent. Kingdom of Mannai 10th–7th cent. Median Empire 728–550 Achaemenid Empire 550–330 Seleucid Empire 330–150 Parthian Empire 248–CE 226 CE Sassanid Empire 226–651 Afrighid dynasty ?–995 Patriarchal Caliphate 637–651 Umayyad Caliphate 661–750 Abbasid Caliphate 750–1258 Tahirid dynasty 821–873 Alavid dynasty 864–928 Sajid dynasty 889/890–929 Saffarid dynasty 861–1003 Samanid dynasty 875–999 Ziyarid dynasty 928–1043 Buyid dynasty 934–1055 Sallarid 942–979 Ma'munids 995-1017 Ghaznavid Empire 963–1187 Ghori dynasty 1149–1212 Seljukid Empire 1037–1194 Khwarezmid dynasty 1077–1231 Ilkhanate 1256–1353 Muzaffarid dynasty 1314–1393 Chupanid dyansty 1337–1357 Jalayerid dynasty 1339–1432 Timurid Empire 1370–1506 Qara Qoyunlu Turcomans 1407–1468 Aq Qoyunlu Turcomans 1378–1508 Safavid dynasty 1501–1722* Hotaki dynasty 1722–1729 Afsharid dynasty 1736–1750 Zand dynasty 1750–1794 Qajar dynasty 1781–1925 Pahlavi dynasty 1925–1979 Iranian Revolution 1979 The Interim Government of Iran 1979–1980 Islamic Republic of Iran since 1980 * or 1736 Timeline [ edit]	2009	Safir-2	''Omid

Notes

# Russia and Ukraine inherited launch capability from the Soviet Union rather than developing it indigenously. # France, United Kingdom launched their first satellites by own launchers from foreign spaceports. # North Korea (1998) and Iraq (1989) have claimed orbital launches (satellite and warhead accordingly), but these claims are unconfirmed. # In addition to the above, countries such as South Africa, Spain, Italy, Germany, Canada, Australia, Argentina, Egypt and private companies such as OTRAG, have developed their own launchers, but have not had a successful launch. # As of 2009, only eight countries from the list above ( Russia and Ukraine instead of USSR, also USA, Japan, China, India, Israel, and Iran) and one regional organization (the European Space Agency, ESA) have independently launched satellites on their own indigenously developed launch vehicles. (The launch capabilities of the United Kingdom and France now fall under the ESA.) # Several other countries, including South Korea, Brazil, Pakistan, Romania, Taiwan, Indonesia, Kazakhstan, Australia, Malaysia and Turkey, are at various stages of development of their own small-scale launcher capabilities. # South Korea launched a KSLV rocket (created with assistance of Russia) in 25 August 2009, but it failed to put satellite STSAT-2 into precise orbit. # North Korea claimed a launch in April 2009, but U.S. and South Korean defense officials and weapons experts later reported that the rocket failed to send a satellite into orbit, if that was the goal. ^{[19] [20]} The United States, Japan and South Korea believe this was actually a ballistic missile test, which is a claim also made after North Korea's 1998 satellite launch, and later rejected.

Launch capable private entities

On September 28, 2008, the private aerospace firm SpaceX successfully launched its Falcon 1 rocket in to orbit. This marked the first time that a privately built liquid-fueled booster was able to reach orbit. ^[21] The rocket carried a prism shaped 1.5 m (5 ft) long payload mass simulator that was set into orbit. The dummy satellite, known as Ratsat, will remain in orbit for between five and ten years before burning up in the atmosphere.

First satellites of countries

|align="left"|

Country	Year of first launch	First satellite	Payloads in orbit in 2008 [23]
()	1957 (1992)	Sputnik 1 (Cosmos-2175)	1398
	1958	Explorer 1	1042
	1962	Alouette 1	25
	1964	San Marco 1	14
collapsed	1965	Astérix	44
	1967	WRESAT	11
	1969	Azur	27
	1970	Osumi	111
	1970	Dong Fang Hong I	64
	1971	Prospero X-3	25
autocollapse	1973	Intercosmos Kopernikus 500	?
	1974	ANS	5
	1974	Intasat	9
	1975	Aryabhata	34
	1976	Palapa A1	10
	1978	Magion 1	5
	1981	Intercosmos Bulgaria 1300	1
	1985	Brasilsat A1	11
	1985	Morelos 1	7
	1986	Viking	11
	1988	Ofeq 1	7
	1988	Astra 1A	15
	1990	Lusat	10
	1990	Badr-1	5
	1992	Kitsat A	10

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