thumb (ruled 117–38), showing the original homeland of the Saxones
, roughly corresponding to the territory of modern Schleswig-Holstein
The Saxons
(Latin: Saxones
) were a confederation of Old Germanic tribes. Their modern-day descendants in Lower Saxony and Westphalia and other German states are considered ethnic Germans (the state of Sachsen is not inhabited by ethnic Saxons; the state of Sachsen-Anhalt only in its northwestern parts); those in the eastern Netherlands are considered to be ethnic Dutch; those in north eastern Belgium are considered to be ethnic Flemish; those in northern France are considered to be ethnic French; and those in Southern England ethnic English (see Anglo-Saxons). Their earliest known area of settlement is Northern Albingia, an area approximately that of modern Holstein.
Saxons participated in the Germanic settlement of Britain during and after the 5th century. It is unknown how many migrated from the continent to Britain though estimates for the total number of Germanic settlers vary between 10,000 and 200,000. [1] Since the 18th century, many continental Saxons have settled other parts of the world, especially in North America, Australia, South Africa, and in areas of the former Soviet Union, where some communities still maintain parts of their cultural and linguistic heritage, often under the umbrella categories "German", "Flemish", and "Dutch".
Because of international Hanseatic trading routes and contingent migration during the Middle Ages, Saxons mixed with and had strong influences upon the languages and cultures of the Scandinavian and Baltic peoples, and also upon the Polabian Slavs and Pomeranian West Slavic peoples.
First mentioned by the Ancient Greek geographer Ptolemy, the pre-Christian settlement of the Saxon people originally covered an area a little more to the northwest, with parts of the southern Jutland Peninsula, Old Saxony and small sections of the eastern Low Countries (Belgium and the Netherlands). During the 5th century AD, the Saxons were part of the people invading the Romano-British province of Britannia. One of the other tribes was the Germanic Angles, whose name, taken together with that of the Saxons led to the formation of the modern term, Anglo-Saxons.
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SAXON TICKETS
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Early history
Ptolemy's
Geographia
, written in the 2nd century, mention a tribe called
Saxones
in the area to the north of the lower
River Elbe, thought to derive from the word
Sax
or stone knife.
[2] However, other copies call the same tribe
Axones
, and it is considered likely that it is a misspelling of the tribe that
Tacitus called
Aviones
in his
Germania
. Ptolemy's reference derives from earlier Roman and Greek text that use older derivations of the name Saxon as Sacasena (German: Sachsen) and Sacae
[3].
Pliny the Younger used both Sacae and
Sacasena to denote the Saxons in their migration through an Armenia region known to the
Greek historian,
Strabo, as Sacasene or 'Saxony' ( & ). Pliny also notes that the name of at least some of the Saxons changed to Sarmatae and
Germani providing some clue as to when 'German' and 'Saxon' emerged as separate terms.
Herodotus denotes the Saxons as Sacae (Saka), but claims the term originates with the
Persian.
[4] Herodotus also notes that the Saxons were clad in trousers, and had on their heads tall stiff caps rising to a point, bearing bows of their country and the daggers; a very Saxon description. The term "Saka" (Sacae) has been discovery on the
Behistun rock, and in
Darius's tomb, however
Julius Oppert has argued that the Persians borrowed the
Median expression 'Saka', found in the Persian on the
Behistun rock, rather than the Assyrian denomination of
Gimirri (Cimmerian) found in Babylonian on the same rock.
[5] The expression 'Saka' was equivalent to 'Cimmerian' as both denote the same people in separate languages.
The first undisputed mention of the Saxon name in its modern form is from 356, when
Julian, later the
Roman Emperor, mentions them in a speech as allies of
Magnentius, a rival emperor in
Gaul. All mentions of the Saxons during the 4th and early 5th centuries refer to pirates and warlords in
Gaul and Britain, rather than to a specific tribe or inhabitants of a specific area. In order to defend against Saxon raiders, the
Romans created a military district called the
Litus Saxonicum
("Saxon Coast") on both sides of the
English Channel. In 441/442, Saxons are mentioned for the first time as inhabitants of Britain, when an unknown Gaulish historian writes: "Britain falls under the rule of the Saxons".
Saxons as inhabitants of present-day
Northern Germany are first mentioned in 555, when
Theudebald, the Frankish king, dies and the Saxons use this opportunity for an uprising. The uprising is suppressed by
Chlothar I, Theudebald's successor. Some of their Frankish successors fought against the Saxons, others were allied with them;
Chlothar II won a decisive victory against Saxons. The
Thuringians frequently appear as allies of the Saxons.
The Saxons may have derived their name from
seax
, a kind of knife for which they were known.
[6] The seax has a lasting symbolic impact in the
English counties of
Essex and
Middlesex, which both feature three seaxes in their ceremonial emblem.
Continental Saxons
| Ancient Germanic culture}}portal
|
Saxony
The Saxons appear to have consolidated themselves by the end of the 8th century, when a political entity called the
Duchy of Saxony appeared.
The Saxons long resisted both becoming
Christians [7] and being incorporated into the orbit of the
Frankish kingdom, but they were decisively conquered by
Charlemagne in a long series of annual campaigns, the
Saxon Wars (772 – 804). During Charlemagne's campaign in
Hispania (778), the Saxons advanced to
Deutz on the
Rhine and plundered along the river. With defeat came the enforced
baptism and
conversion of the Saxon leaders and their people. Their sacred tree or pillar, a symbol of
Irminsul, was destroyed.
Under
Carolingian rule, the Saxons were reduced to tributary status. There is evidence that the Saxons, as well as Slavic tributaries such as the
Abodrites and the
Wends, often provided troops to their Carolingian overlords. The dukes of Saxony became kings (
Henry I, the Fowler, 919) and later the first emperors (Henry's son,
Otto I, the Great) of
Germany during the
10th century, but they lost this position in 1024. The duchy was divided up in 1180 when Duke
Henry the Lion, Emperor Otto's grandson, refused to follow his cousin, Emperor
Frederick Barbarossa, into war in
Lombardy.
During the
High Middle Ages, under the
Salian emperors and, later, under the
Teutonic Knights, German settlers moved east along the
River Elbe into the area of a western Slavic tribe, the
Sorbs. The Sorbs were gradually Germanised. This region subsequently acquired the name Saxony through political circumstances, though it was initially called the
March of Meissen. The rulers of
Meissen acquired control of the
Duchy of Saxony in 1423 and eventually applied the name
Saxony
to the whole of their kingdom. Since then, this part of eastern Germany has been referred to as
Saxony (German:
Sachsen
), a source of some misunderstanding about the original homeland of the Saxons, mostly in the present-day German state of
Lower Saxony (German:
Niedersachsen
).
Balkans
In the Middle Ages, groups of Saxon ore miners (called ????,
sasi
in the
South Slavic languages) settled in ore-rich regions of
Southeastern Europe. In the 13th and 14th centuries, Saxons from the
Upper Harz and
Westphalia settled in and around
Chiprovtsi in modern northwestern
Bulgaria (then in the
Second Bulgarian Empire) to extract ore in the western
Balkan Mountains, receiving royal privileges from
Bulgarian tsar Ivan Shishman.
[8] It is thought that these miners established
Roman Catholicism in this part of the
Balkans before being completely assimilated and merging with the local population.
[9] Along with spreading Roman Catholicism, the Saxons also enriched the local vocabulary with
Germanic words and introduced new mining techniques and metal-working instruments to Bulgaria. Ethnic subgroups that are thought to be partially descended from these Saxons are the
Banat Bulgarians and the
Krashovani.
Saxons also mined ore in the
Osogovo and
Belasica Mountains (between
Bulgaria and
Macedonia [10]), as well as around
Samokov [11] in
Rila and in various parts of the
Rhodopes [12] [13] and around
Etropole [14] (all in Bulgaria), but were assimilated without establishing Roman Catholicism there .
The Saxons miners in
Serbia,
Montenegro and
Bosnia and Herzegovina — active in
Brskovo,
Rudnik,
Olovo,
Novo Brdo and other places — also left a significant trace in the mining and metal-working history of the
South Slavs.
[15]
In the
Srebrenica region for example the mine of Sase translates directly to Saxon in the South Slavic languages of the region.The biggest mine for lead and zinc in present day Macedonia is still called Sasa. Many of the region's
Bosnians are the direct descendents of these very same miners who settled into the region between the 12th and 15th century.
[16]
Other Saxons settled in the medieval principalities of
Wallachia and
Moldavia, especially in towns (
Câmpulung-Musce,
Iasi,
Baia,
Suceava,
Siret,
Roman).
Italy and Gaul
In 569, some Saxons accompanied the
Lombards into Italy under the leadership of
Alboin and settled there.
[17] In 572, they raided Gaul as far as
Stablo near
Riez. Divided, they were easily defeated by
Gallo-Roman General
Mummolus. When the Saxons regrouped, a peace treaty was negotiated whereby the Italian Saxons were allowed to settle with their families in
Austrasia.
[18] Gathering their families and belongings in Italy, they returned to Gaul in two groups in 573. One group proceeded by way of
Nice and another via
Embrun, joining up at
Avignon, where they plundered the territory and were consequently stopped from crossing the
Rhone by Mummolus. They were forced to pay compensation for what they had robbed before they could enter Austrasia.
Some Saxons already lived in
Gaul (e.g.
Vron-
Ponthieu,
Sassetot-le-Mauconduit;
Flanders up to
Ile d'Aix) at that time. A Saxon king named
Eadwacer conquered
Angers in 463 only to be dislodged by
Childeric I and the
Salian Franks, allies of the
Roman Empire. It is possible that Saxon settlement of Great Britain began only in response to expanding Frankish control of the
Channel coast.
[19]
A Saxon unit of
laeti
had been settled at
Bayeux — the
Saxones Baiocassenses
— since the time of the
Notitia Dignitatum
.
[20] These Saxons became subjects of
Clovis I late in the fifth century. The Saxons of Bayeux comprised a standing army and were often called upon to serve alongside the local
levy of their region in
Merovingian military campaigns. They were ineffective against
Waroch in this capacity in 579.
[21] In 589, the Saxons wore their hair in the
Breton fashion at the orders of
Fredegund and fought with them as allies against
Guntram.
[22] Beginning in 626, the Saxons of the
Bessin were used by
Dagobert I for his campaigns against the
Basques. One of their own,
Aeghyna, was even created a
dux
over the region of
Vasconia.
[23]
Saxons in Britain
Saxons, along with
Angles,
Jutes,
Frisians, and possibly
Franks, invaded or migrated to the island of
Great Britain (
Britannia) around the time of the collapse of
Roman authority in the west. Saxon raiders had been harassing the eastern and southern shores of Britannia for centuries before, prompting the construction of a string of coastal forts called the litora Saxonica or
Saxon Shore, and many Saxons and other folk had been permitted to settle in these areas as farmers long before the end of Roman rule in Britannia. According to tradition, however, the Saxons (and other tribes) first entered Britain en masse as part of a deal to protect the
Britons from the incursions of the
Picts,
Irish, and others. The story as reported in such sources as the
Historia Brittonum
indicates that the British king
Vortigern allowed the Germanic warlords
Hengist and
Horsa to settle their people on the
Isle of Thanet in exchange for their service as mercenaries. Hengist manipulated Vortigern into granting more land and allowing for more settlers to come in, paving the way for the Germanic settlement of Britain.
Four separate Saxon realms emerged:
# East Saxons: created the
Kingdom of Essex.
# Middle Saxons: created the province of
Middlesex
# South Saxons: led by
Aelle, created the
Kingdom of Sussex
# West Saxons: led by
Cerdic, created the
Kingdom of Wessex
During the period of the reigns from Egbert to
Alfred the Great, the kings of Wessex emerged as
Bretwalda, unifying the country and eventually forging it into the kingdom of England in the face of
Viking invasions.
Historians are divided about what followed: some argue that the takeover of southern Great Britain by the
Anglo-Saxons was peaceful. There is, however, only one known account from a native Briton who lived at this time (
Gildas), and his description is of a forced takeover:
For the fire...spread from sea to sea, fed by the hands of our foes in the east, and did not cease, until, destroying the neighbouring towns and lands, it reached the other side of the island, and dipped its red and savage tongue in the western ocean. In these assaults...all the columns were levelled with the ground by the frequent strokes of the battering-ram, all the husbandmen routed, together with their bishops, priests, and people, whilst the sword gleamed, and the flames crackled around them on every side. Lamentable to behold, in the midst of the streets lay the tops of lofty towers, tumbled to the ground, stones of high walls, holy altars, fragments of human bodies, covered with livid clots of coagulated blood, looking as if they had been squeezed together in a press; and with no chance of being buried, save in the ruins of the houses, or in the ravening bellies of wild beasts and birds; with reverence be it spoken for their blessed souls, if, indeed, there were many found who were carried, at that time, into the high heaven by the holy angels... Some, therefore, of the miserable remnant, being taken in the mountains, were murdered in great numbers; others, constrained by famine, came and yielded themselves to be slaves for ever to their foes, running the risk of being instantly slain, which truly was the greatest favour that could be offered them: some others passed beyond the seas with loud lamentations instead of the voice of exhortation...Others, committing the safeguard of their lives, which were in continual jeopardy, to the mountains, precipices, thickly wooded forests, and to the rocks of the seas (albeit with trembling hearts), remained still in their country.
Social structure
Bede, a
Northumbrian, writing around the year 730, remarks that "the old (that is, the continental) Saxons have no king, but they are governed by several
ealdormen (or
satrapa
) who, during war, cast lots for leadership but who, in time of peace, are equal in power." The
regnum Saxonum
was divided into three provinces —
Westphalia,
Eastphalia and
Angria — which comprised about one hundred
pagi
or
Gaue
. Each
Gau
had its own satrap with enough military power to level whole villages which opposed him.
[24]
In the mid
9th century,
Nithard first described the social structure of the Saxons beneath their leaders. The caste structure was rigid; in the
Saxon language the three castes, excluding slaves, were called the
edhilingui
(related to the term
aetheling),
frilingi
, and
lazzi
. These terms were subsequently
Latinised as
nobiles
or
nobiliores
;
ingenui
,
ingenuiles
, or
liberi
; and
liberti
,
liti
, or
serviles
.
[25] According to very early traditions which probably contain a good deal of historical truth, the
edhilingui
were the descendants of the Saxons who led the tribe out of
Holstein and during the migrations of the sixth century.
They were a conquering, warrior elite. The
frilingi
represented the descendants of the
amicii
,
auxiliarii
, and
manumissi
of that caste, while the
lazzi
represented the descendants of the original inhabitants of the conquered territories, who were forced to make oaths of submission and pay tribute to the
edhilingui
.
The
Lex Saxonum
regulated the Saxons' unusual society. Intermarriage between the castes was forbidden by the
Lex
and
wergilds were set based upon caste membership. The
edhilingui
were worth 1,440
solidi, or about 700 head of cattle, the highest wergild on the continent; the price of a bride was also very high. This was six times as much as that of the
frilingi
and eight times as much as the
lazzi
. The gulf between noble and ignoble was very large, but the difference between a freeman and an indentured labourer was small.
[26]
According to the
Vita Lebuini antiqua
, an important source for early Saxon history, the Saxons held an annual council at
Marklo where they "confirmed their laws, gave judgment on outstanding cases, and determined by common counsel whether they would go to war or be in peace that year."
All three castes participated in the general council; twelve representatives from each caste were sent from each
Gau
. In 782, Charlemagne abolished the system of
Gaue
and replaced it with the
Grafschaftsverfassung
, the system of
counties typical of
Francia.
[27] Charlemagne outlawed the Marklo councils and thus pushed the
frilingi
and
lazzi
out of political power. The old Saxon system of
Abgabengrundherrschaft
, lordship based on dues and taxes, was replaced by a form of
feudalism based on service and labour, personal relationships, and oaths.
[28]
Religion
Paganism and politics
Saxon pagan practices were closely related to Saxon political practices. The annual councils of the entire tribe began with invocations of the gods, and the procedure by which dukes were elected in wartime, by drawing lots, probably had pagan significance, that is, giving trust to divine providence to guide the seemingly random decision making.
[29] There were also sacred rituals and objects, such as the pillars called
Irminsul, which were believed to connect heaven and earth.
Charlemagne had one such pillar chopped down in 772.
Something of pagan Saxon practice in Britain can be gleaned from place names. The Germanic
gods Woden,
Frigg,
Tiw, and
Thunor, who are attested to in every Germanic pagan tradition, were worshipped in Wessex, Sussex, and Essex, and they are the only ones directly attested to, though the names of the third and fourth months (March and April) of the Old English calendar bear the names
Hrethmonath
and
Eosturmonath
, meaning "month of
Hretha" and "month of
Eostre", apparently from the names of two goddesses who were worshipped around that season.
[30] The pagan Saxons offered cakes to their gods in February (
Solmonath
) and there was a religious festival associated with the harvest,
Halegmonath
("holy month" or month of offerings", September).
[31] The pagan calendar began on
25 December, and the months of December and January were called
Yule (or
Giuli
) and contained a
Modra niht
or "night of the mothers", another religious festival of unknown content.
The Saxon freemen and servile class remained practising pagans long after their nominal conversion to Christianity. Nursing a hatred of the upper class which, with Frankish assistance, had marginalised them from political power, the lower classes (the
plebeium vulgus
or
cives
) were still a problem for Christian authorities as late as 836, when the
Translatio S. Liborii
remarks on their obstinacy in pagan
ritus et superstitio
(usage and superstition).
[32]
Conversion and resistance
The conversion of the Saxons in England from their original
Germanic paganism to
Christianity was accomplished in the early to late seventh century under the influence of the already converted
Jutes of
Kent. In the 630s,
Birinus became the "apostle to the West Saxons" and converted
Wessex, whose first Christian king was
Cynegils. The West Saxons begin to emerge from obscurity only with their conversion to
Christianity and the keeping of written records. The
Gewisse, a West Saxon people, were especially resistant to Christianity; but Birinus merely exercised more efforts against them.
In Wessex,
a bishopric was founded at
Dorchester. The South Saxons were first evangelised extensively under
Anglian influence;
Aethelwalh of Sussex was converted by
Wulfhere,
King of Mercia, and allowed
Wilfrid,
Archbishop of York, to evangelise his people beginning in 681. The chief South Saxon bishopric was
that of Selsey. The
East Saxons were more pagan than the southern or western Saxons; their territory had a superabundance of pagan sites.
[33] Their king,
Saeberht, was converted early and a diocese was established at
London, but its first bishop,
Mellitus, was expelled by Saeberth's heirs. The conversion of the East Saxons was only completed under
Cedd in the 650s and 660s.
The continental Saxons were evangelised largely by English missionaries in the late seventh and early eighth centuries. Around 695, two early English missionaries,
Hewald the White and
Hewald the Black were martyred by the
vicani
, that is, villagers.
Throughout the century that followed, it was the villagers and other peasants who were to prove the greatest opponents of
Christianisation, while missionaries often received the support of the
edhilingui
and other noblemen.
Saint Lebuin, an Englishman who preached to the Saxons between 745 and 770, built a church and made many friends among the nobility, some of whom were compelled to save him from an angry mob at the annual council at Marklo. Social tensions arose between the Christianity-sympathetic noblemen and the staunchly pagan lower castes.
[34]
Under Charlemagne, the
Saxon Wars had as their chief object the conversion and integration of the Saxons into the Frankish empire. Though much of the highest caste converted readily, forced baptisms and forced tithing made enemies of the lower orders. Even some contemporaries found the methods employed to win over the Saxons wanting, as this excerpt from a letter of
Alcuin of York to his friend Meginfrid, written in 796, shows:
If the light yoke and sweet burden of Christ were to be preached to the most obstinate people of the Saxons with as much determination as the payment of tithes has been exacted, or as the force of the legal decree has been applied for fault of the most trifling sort imaginable, perhaps they would not be averse to their baptismal vows. [35]
Louis the Pious, Charlemagne's successor, reportedly treated the Saxons more as Alcuin would have wished, and consequently they were faithful subjects.
[36] The lower classes, however, revolted against Frankish overlordship in favour of their old paganism as late as the 840s, when the
Stellinga
rose up against the Saxon leadership, who were allied with the Frankish emperor
Lothair I. After the suppression of the
Stellinga
, in 851
Louis the German brought
relics from
Rome to Saxony to foster a devotion to the
Roman Catholic Church.
[37] When the
Poeta Saxo composed his verse
Annales
of Charlemagne's reign with an emphasis on his conquest of Saxony, the great emperor was viewed on par with the Roman emperors as the bringer of Christian salvation to a pagan people.
Vernacular Christianity
In the ninth century, the Saxon nobility became vigorous supporters of
monasticism and formed a bulwark of Christianity against the existing
Slavic paganism to the east and the
Nordic paganism of the
Vikings to the north. Indeed, Saxony, once so pagan, became the source of a bold and unique Christianity, as evidenced by the Christian literature in the vernacular
Old Saxon; the literary output and wide influence of Saxon monasteries such as
Fulda,
Corvey, and
Verden; and the theological controversy between the
Augustinian Gottschalk and the
semipelagian Rabanus Maurus.
[38]
From an early date, Charlemagne and
Louis the Pious supported Christian vernacular works in order to evangelise the Saxons more efficiently. The
Heiland
, a verse epic of the life of Christ in a Germanic setting, and
Genesis
, another epic retelling of the events of
the first book of the Bible, were commissioned in the early ninth century by Louis to disseminate scriptural knowledge to the masses. A council of
Tours in 813 and then a synod of
Mainz in 848 both declared that
homilies ought to be preached in the vernacular. The earliest preserved text in the Saxon language is a baptismal vow from the late eighth or early ninth century; the vernacular was used extensively in an effort to Christianise the lowest castes of Saxon society.
[39]
Etymology
thumb, in the day of the early Saxons.
thumb).
Following the downfall of
Henry the Lion and the subsequent split of the Saxon tribal duchy into several territories, the name of the Saxon duchy was transferred to the lands of the
Ascanian family. This led to the differentiation between
Lower Saxony
, lands settled by the Saxon tribe, and
Upper Saxony
, as the duchy (finally a kingdom). When the
Upper
was dropped from Upper Saxony, a different region had acquired the Saxon name, ultimately replacing the name's original meaning.
The
Finns and
Estonians have changed their usage of the term
Saxony
over the centuries to denote the whole country of
Germany (
Saksa
and
Saksamaa
respectively) and the
Germans (
saksalaiset
and
sakslased
, respectively) now. In old Finnish the word
saksa
meant
merchant, as in the words
voisaksa
(
butter seller) and
kauppasaksa
(traveling salesman), in Estonian
saks
means
master.
The label "Saxons" (in Romanian 'Sasi') was also applied to
German settlers from Saxony who migrated during the 13th century to southeastern
Transylvania in present-day
Romania.
In the
Celtic languages, the word for the English nationality is derived from the word
Saxon
. The most prominent example, often used in English, is the
Gàidhlig loanword
Sassenach (
Saxon
), often used disparagingly in
Scottish English/
Scots (those Scots of
West Germanic origin were largely of
Angle descent).
England
, in Gàidhlig, is
Sasainn
(Saxony). Other examples are the
Welsh Saesneg
(the English language),
Irish Sasana
(England),
Breton Saozneg
(the English language), and
Cornish Sowson
(English people) and
Sowsnek
(English language), as in the famous
My ny vynnav kows Sowsnek!
(
I will not speak English!
).
During
Georg Friederich Händel's visit to Italy, much was made of his being from Saxony; in particular, the
Venetians greeted the 1709 performance of his opera
Agrippina
with the cry
Viva il caro Sassone
, "Long live the beloved Saxon!"
[40]
The word also survives as the surnames Saß/Sass, Sachse and
Sachs. The
Dutch female first name "
Saskia" originally meant "A Saxon woman" (alteration of "Saxia").
Notes
- Germans set up an apartheid-like society in Britain
- {{CathEncy|wstitle=Saxony}}
- A dissertation on the origin and progress of the Scythians or Goths
- VII, SS1
- Transactions: Second Session of the International Congress of Orientalists
- Burton, Mark (2002). Milites deBec Equipment.Retrieved 27 September 2005.
- "they are much given to devil worship," Einhard said, "and they are hostile to our religion," as when they martyred the Saints Ewald
- ??????????? ???????? 1688 ?. ??????????? ? ????????? ? ?????????? ?? ?????
- ????????
- ?? ???????????? ?????????? ?? ??????? ?? ???????? “???? ???????”
- ??????? ?? ???????
- ???? ?????
- ????? ??????? ?????? ?????? ??????? ???? ?? ??????????
- ? ???????? ??????? ???????? ? ?????????
- ???????????? ????????? ???? ???? XIV ???
- Silver and Gold in Medieval Europe
- Bachrach, p.39.
- Bachrach, p.39
- Stenton, 12.
- Bachrach, 10.
- Bachrach, 52.
- Bachrach, 63.
- Fredegar, IV.54, p. 66.
- Goldberg, 473.
- Goldberg, 471.
- Goldberg, 472.
- Goldberg, 476.
- Goldberg, 479.
- Goldberg, 474.
- Stenton, 97–98.
- Stenton
- Goldberg, 480.
- Stenton, 102.
- Goldberg
- Goldberg, 478.
- Hummer, 141, based on Astronomus.
- Hummer, 143.
- Goldberg, 477.
- Hummer, 138–139.
- Barber, David W. (1996). ''Bach, Beethoven And the Boys: Music History as it Ought to be Taught''. Sound and Vision, Toronto ISBN 0-920151-10-8
References
- Germans set up an apartheid-like society in Britain
- {{CathEncy|wstitle=Saxony}}
- A dissertation on the origin and progress of the Scythians or Goths
- VII, SS1
- Transactions: Second Session of the International Congress of Orientalists
- Burton, Mark (2002). Milites deBec Equipment.Retrieved 27 September 2005.
- "they are much given to devil worship," Einhard said, "and they are hostile to our religion," as when they martyred the Saints Ewald
- ??????????? ???????? 1688 ?. ??????????? ? ????????? ? ?????????? ?? ?????
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- ?? ???????????? ?????????? ?? ??????? ?? ???????? “???? ???????”
- ??????? ?? ???????
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- ????? ??????? ?????? ?????? ??????? ???? ?? ??????????
- ? ???????? ??????? ???????? ? ?????????
- ???????????? ????????? ???? ???? XIV ???
- Silver and Gold in Medieval Europe
- Bachrach, p.39.
- Bachrach, p.39
- Stenton, 12.
- Bachrach, 10.
- Bachrach, 52.
- Bachrach, 63.
- Fredegar, IV.54, p. 66.
- Goldberg, 473.
- Goldberg, 471.
- Goldberg, 472.
- Goldberg, 476.
- Goldberg, 479.
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- Stenton, 97–98.
- Stenton
- Goldberg, 480.
- Stenton, 102.
- Goldberg
- Goldberg, 478.
- Hummer, 141, based on Astronomus.
- Hummer, 143.
- Goldberg, 477.
- Hummer, 138–139.
- Barber, David W. (1996). ''Bach, Beethoven And the Boys: Music History as it Ought to be Taught''. Sound and Vision, Toronto ISBN 0-920151-10-8