Wine
is an alcoholic beverage typically made of fermented grape juice. [1] The natural chemical balance of grapes is such that they can ferment without the addition of sugars, acids, enzymes or other nutrients. [2] Wine is produced by fermenting crushed grapes using various types of yeast. Yeast consumes the sugars found in the grapes and converts them into alcohol. Different varieties of grapes and strains of yeasts are used depending on the type of wine being produced. [3]
Although other fruits such as apples and berries can also be fermented, the resultant wines are normally named after the fruit from which they are produced (for example, apple wine or elderberry wine) and are generically known as fruit wine or country wine (not to be confused with the French term vin de pays). Others, such as barley wine and rice wine (i.e., sake), are made from starch-based materials and resemble beer and spirit more than wine, while ginger wine is fortified with brandy. In these cases, the use of the term "wine" is a reference to the higher alcohol content, rather than production process. [4] The commercial use of the English word "wine" (and its equivalent in other languages) is protected by law in many jurisdictions. [5]
Wine has a rich history dating back to around 6000 BC and is thought to have originated in areas now within the borders of Georgia and Iran. [6] [7] Wine probably appeared in Europe at about 4500 BC in what is now Bulgaria and Greece, and was very common in ancient Greece, Thrace and Rome. Wine has also played an important role in religion throughout history. The Greek god Dionysos and the Roman equivalent Bacchus represented wine, and the drink is also used in Christian and Jewish ceremonies such as the Eucharist (also called the Holy Communion) and Kiddush.
The word "wine" derives from the Proto-Germanic "*winam," an early borrowing from the Latin vinum
, "wine" or "(grape) vine," itself derived from the Proto-Indo-European stem *win-o- (cf. Hittite: wiyana
,Lycian: Oino
, Ancient Greek ?????
- oînos
, Aeolic Greek ??????
- woinos
). [8] [9]
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History
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Archaeological evidence suggests that the earliest production of wine, made by fermenting grapes, took place in sites in
Georgia and
Iran, from as early as 6000 BC.
These locations are all within the natural area of the
European grapevine
Vitis vinifera
.
A 2003 report by
archaeologists indicates a possibility that grapes were used together with
rice to produce mixed fermented beverages in
China as early as 7000 BC. Pottery jars from the
Neolithic site of
Jiahu,
Henan were found to contain traces of
tartaric acid and other organic compounds commonly found in wine. However, other fruits indigenous to the region, such as
hawthorn, could not be ruled out.
[11] [12] If these beverages, which seem to be the precursors of
rice wine, included grapes rather than other fruits, these grapes were of any of the several dozen indigenous wild species of grape in China, rather than from
Vitis vinifera
, which were introduced into China some 6000 years later.
The oldest known evidence of wine production in Europe is dated to 4500 BC and comes from archaeological sites in
Greece.
[13] [14] The same sites also contain the world’s earliest evidence of crushed grapes.
In
Ancient Egypt, six of 36 wine
amphoras were found in the tomb of King
Tutankhamun bearing the name "Kha'y", a royal chief
vintner. Five of these amphoras were designated as from the King's personal estate with the sixth listed as from the estate of the royal house of
Aten.
[15] Traces of wine have also been found in
central Asian
Xinjiang, dating from the second and first millennia BC.
[16]
In
medieval Europe, the
Roman Catholic Church was a staunch supporter of wine since it was necessary for the celebration of
Mass.
Monks in
France made wine for years, storing it underground in caves to age.
[17] There is an old English recipe which survived in various forms until the nineteenth century for refining white wine using Bastard—bad or tainted
bastardo
wine.
[18] Wine was forbidden during the
Islamic Golden Age, until
Geber and other
Muslim chemists pioneered its
distillation for
cosmetic and
medical uses.
[19]
Grape varieties
Wine is usually made from one or more
varieties of the European
species Vitis vinifera
, such as
Pinot Noir,
Chardonnay,
Cabernet Sauvignon, and
Merlot. When one of these varieties is used as the predominant grape (usually defined by law as a minimum of 75% or 85%), the result is a
varietal
, as opposed to a
blended
, wine. Blended wines are not necessarily considered inferior to varietal wines; some of the world's most expensive wines, from regions like
Bordeaux and the
Rhone Valley, are blended from different grape varieties of the same
vintage.
Wine can also be made from other species of grape or from
hybrids, created by the genetic crossing of two species.
Vitis labrusca
(of which the
Concord grape is a
cultivar),
Vitis aestivalis
,
Vitis rupestris
,
Vitis rotundifolia
and
Vitis riparia
are native
North American grapes usually grown for consumption as fruit or for the production of grape juice, jam, or jelly, but sometimes made into wine.
Hybridization is not to be confused with the practice of
grafting. Most of the world's vineyards are planted with European
V. vinifera
vines that have been grafted onto North American species rootstock. This is common practice because North American grape species are resistant to
phylloxera, a root louse that eventually kills the vine. In the late 19th century, most of Europe's vineyards (only excluding some of the driest vineyards in Southern Europe) were devastated by the bug, leading to massive vine deaths and eventual replanting. Grafting is done in every wine-producing country of the world except for
Argentina, the
Canary Islands and
Chile, which are the only ones that have not yet been exposed to the insect.
[20]
In the context of wine production,
terroir
is a concept that encompasses the varieties of grapes used, elevation and shape of the vineyard, type and chemistry of soil, climate and seasonal conditions, and the local yeast cultures. The range of possibilities here can result in great differences between wines, influencing the fermentation, finishing, and aging processes as well. Many wineries use growing and production methods that preserve or accentuate the
aroma and taste influences of their unique
terroir
.
[21] However, flavor differences are not desirable for producers of mass-market
table wine or other cheaper wines, where consistency is more important. Such producers will try to minimize differences in sources of grapes by using production techniques such as
micro-oxygenation, tannin filtration, cross-flow filtration, thin film evaporation,
and spinning cones.
[22]
Classification
Regulations govern the classification and sale of wine in many regions of the world. European wines tend to be classified by region (e.g.
Bordeaux and
Chianti), while non-European wines are most often classified by grape (e.g.
Pinot Noir and
Merlot). More and more, however, market recognition of particular regions is leading to their increased prominence on non-European wine labels. Examples of non-European recognized locales include
Napa Valley in
California,
Willamette Valley in
Oregon,
Barossa Valley and
Hunter Valley in
Australia,
Central Valley in
Chile,
Hawke's Bay and
Marlborough in
New Zealand and
Niagara Peninsula in
Canada.
Some blended wine names are marketing terms, and the use of these names is governed by
trademark law rather than by specific wine laws. For example,
Meritage (sounds like "heritage") is generally a Bordeaux-style blend of
Cabernet Sauvignon and Merlot, and may also include
Cabernet Franc,
Petit Verdot, and
Malbec. Commercial use of the term "Meritage" is allowed only via licensing agreements with an organization called the "Meritage Association".
European classifications
France has various
appellation systems based on the concept of terroir, with classifications ranging from
Vin de Table ("table wine") at the bottom, through
Vin de Pays and
Appellation d'Origine Vin Délimité de Qualité Supérieure (AOVDQS) up to
Appellation d'Origine Contrôlée (AOC) or similar, depending on the region.
[23] [24] Portugal has something similar and, in fact, pioneered this technique back in 1756 with a royal charter which created the "Demarcated Douro Region" and regulated wine production and trade.
[25] Germany did likewise in 2002, although their system has not yet achieved the authority of those of the other countries'.
[26] [27] Spain and
Italy have classifications which are based on a dual system of region of origin and quality of product.
[28] [29]
Beyond Europe
New World wine—wines from outside of the traditional wine growing regions of Europe tend to be classified by grape rather than by
terroir
or region of origin, although there have been non-official attempts to classify them by quality.
[30] [31]
Vintages
A "vintage wine" is one made from grapes that were all or mostly grown in a particular year, and labeled as such. Most countries allow a vintage wine to include a portion that is not from the labeled vintage. Variations in a wine's character from year to year can include subtle differences in color, palate, nose, body and development. High-quality red table wines can improve in flavor with age if properly stored.
Consequently, it is not uncommon for wine enthusiasts and traders to save bottles of an especially good vintage wine for future consumption.
In the
United States, for a wine to be vintage dated and labeled with a country of origin or
American Viticultural Area (AVA) (such as "
Sonoma Valley"), it must contain at least 95% of its volume from grapes harvested in that year.
[32] If a wine is not labeled with a country of origin or AVA the percentage requirement is lowered to 85%.
Vintage wines are generally bottled in a single batch so that each bottle will have a similar taste. Climate can have a big impact on the character of a wine to the extent that different vintages from the same vineyard can vary dramatically in flavor and quality.
[33] Thus, vintage wines are produced to be individually characteristic of the vintage and to serve as the flagship wines of the producer. Superior vintages, from reputable producers and regions, will often fetch much higher prices than their average vintages. Some vintage wines, like
Brunellos, are only made in better-than-average years.
Non-vintage wines can be blended from more than one vintage for consistency, a process which allows wine makers to keep a reliable market image and maintain sales even in bad years.
[34] [35] One recent study suggests that for normal drinkers, vintage year may not be as significant to perceived wine quality as currently thought, although wine connoisseurs continue to place great importance on it.
[36]
Tasting
Wine tasting is the sensory examination and evaluation of wine. Wines are made up of chemical compounds which are similar or identical to those in fruits, vegetables, and
spices. The
sweetness of wine is determined by the amount of residual sugar in the wine after fermentation, relative to the acidity present in the wine.
Dry wine, for example, has only a small amount of residual sugar. Inexperienced wine drinkers often tend to mistake the taste of ripe fruit for sweetness when, in fact, the wine in question is very dry.
Individual flavors may also be detected, due to the complex mix of organic molecules such as
esters and
terpenes that grape juice and wine can contain. Tasters often can distinguish between flavors characteristic of a specific grape (e.g.,
Chianti and sour cherry) and flavors that result from other factors in wine making, either intentional or not. The most typical intentional flavor elements in wine are those that are imparted by aging in oak casks; chocolate, vanilla, or coffee almost always come from the oak and not the grape itself.
[37]
Banana flavors (
isoamyl acetate) are the product of yeast metabolism, as are spoilage aromas such as sweaty, barnyard, band-aid (
4-ethylphenol and
4-ethylguaiacol),
[38] and rotten egg (
hydrogen sulfide).
[39] Some varietals can also have a mineral flavor, because some salts are soluble in water (like limestone), and are absorbed by the wine.
Wine aroma comes from volatile compounds in the wine that are released into the air.
[40] Vaporization of these compounds can be sped up by twirling the wine glass or serving the wine at room temperature. For red wines that are already highly aromatic, like
Chinon and
Beaujolais, many people prefer them chilled.
[41]
Collecting
At the highest end, rare, super-premium wines are the most expensive of all food, and outstanding vintages from the best vineyards may sell for thousands of
dollars per bottle, though the broader term
fine wine
covers bottles typically retailing at over about $US 30-50.
[42] "Investment wines" are considered by some to be
Veblen goods
—that is, goods for which demand increases instead of decreases as its price rises. The most common wines purchased for investment include those from
Bordeaux,
Burgundy,
cult wines from
Europe and elsewhere, and
Vintage port. Characteristics of highly collectible wines include:
#A proven track record of holding well over time
#A drinking window plateau (i.e., the period for maturity and approachability) that is many years long
#A consensus amongst experts as to the quality of the wines
#Rigorous production methods at every stage, including grape selection and appropriate barrel-ageing
Investment in fine wine has attracted fraudsters who prey on their victims' ignorance of this sector of the wine market.
Wine fraudsters often work by charging excessively high prices for off-vintage or lower-status wines from famous wine regions, while claiming that they are offering a sound investment unaffected by
economic cycles. Like any investment, proper research is essential before investing.
Production
| Rank
| Country
(with link to wine article)
| Production
(tonnes)
|
| 1
| France
| 5,349,333
|
| 2
| Italy
| 4,711,665
|
| 3
| Spain
| 3,643,666
|
| 4
| United States
| 2,232,000
|
| 5
| Argentina
| 1,539,600
|
| 6
| Australia
| 1,410,483
|
| 7
| China
| 1,400,000
|
| 8
| South Africa
| 1,012,980
|
| 9
| Chile
| 977,087
|
| 10
| Germany
| 891,600
|
| Rank
| Country
(with link to wine article)
| Production
(tonnes)
|
| 1
| Italy
| 5,050,000
|
| 2
| France
| 4,711,600
|
| 3
| Spain
| 3,645,000
|
| 4
| United States
| 2,300,000
|
| 5
| Argentina
| 1,550,000
|
| 6
| China
| 1,450,000
|
| 7
| South Africa
| 1,050,000
|
| 8
| Australia
| 961,972
|
| 9
| Germany
| 891,600
|
| 10
| Chile
| 827,746
|
Wine grapes grow almost exclusively between thirty and fifty degrees north or south of the
equator. The world's southernmost vineyards are in the
Central Otago region of New Zealand's
South Island near the 45th parallel,
[45] and the northernmost are in
Flen,
Sweden, just north of the 59th parallel.
[46]
Exporting countries
| Rank
| Country
| 1000 tonnes
|
| 1
| Italy*
| 1,793
|
| 2
| France
| 1,462
|
| 3
| Spain*
| 1,337
|
| 4
| Australia
| 762
|
| 5
| Chile*
| 472
|
| 6
| United States
| 369
|
| 7
| Germany
| 316
|
| 8
| Argentina
| 302
|
| 9
| Portugal
| 286
|
| 10
| South Africa
| 272
|
| **
| 8,353
|
* Unofficial figure. ** May include official, semi-official or estimated data.
|
| Rank
| Country
| Market share
(% of value in US$)
|
| 1
| France
| 34.9%
|
| 2
| Italy
| 18.0%
|
| 3
| Australia
| 9.3%
|
| 4
| Spain
| 8.7%
|
| 5
| Chile
| 4.3%
|
| 6
| United States
| 3.6%
|
| 7
| Germany
| 3.5%
|
| 8
| Portugal
| 3.0%
|
| 9
| South Africa
| 2.4%
|
| 10
| New Zealand
| 1.8%
|
|
The
UK was the world's biggest importer of wine in 2007.
[48]
Uses
300px annual wine consumption:
less than 1 litre.
from 1 to 7 litres.
from 7 to 15 litres.
from 15 to 30 litres.
More than 30 litres.
Wine is a popular and important
beverage that accompanies and enhances a wide range of
European and
Mediterranean-style
cuisines, from the simple and traditional to the most sophisticated and complex. Wine is important in cuisine not just for its value as a beverage, but as a flavor agent, primarily in
stocks and
braising, since its acidity lends balance to rich
savory or
sweet dishes. Red, white, and sparkling wines are the most popular, and are known as
light wines
because they are only 10–14%
alcohol-content by volume.
Apéritif and
dessert wines contain 14–20% alcohol, and are sometimes fortified to make them richer and sweeter.
Some wine labels suggest opening the bottle and letting the wine "breathe" for a couple hours before serving, while others recommend drinking it immediately.
Decanting—the act of pouring a wine into a special container just for breathing—is a controversial subject in wine. In addition to aeration, decanting with a filter allows one to remove bitter sediments that may have formed in the wine. Sediment is more common in older bottles but younger wines usually benefit more from aeration.
[49]
During aeration, the exposure of younger wines to air often "relaxes" the flavors and makes them taste smoother and better integrated in aroma, texture, and flavor. Older wines generally
fade
, or lose their character and flavor intensity, with extended aeration.
[50] Despite these general rules, breathing does not necessarily benefit all wines. Wine should be tasted as soon as it is opened to determine how long it should be aerated, if at all.
Religious uses
Ancient Religions
The use of wine in religious ceremonies is common to many cultures and regions.
Libations often included wine, and the
religious mysteries of Dionysus used wine as a sacramental
entheogen to induce a mind-altering state.
Judaism
Wine is an integral part of
Jewish laws and traditions. The
Kiddush
is a blessing recited over wine or grape juice to sanctify the
Shabbat or a
Jewish holiday. On Pesach (
Passover) during the Seder, it is a Rabbinic obligation of men and women to drink four cups of wine.
[51] In the
Tabernacle and in the
Temple in Jerusalem, the libation of wine was part of the sacrificial service.
[52] Note that this does not mean that wine is a symbol of blood, a common misconception which contributes to the myth of the
blood libel. A blessing over wine said before indulging in the drink is:
"Baruch atah Hashem
(Adonai)
elokeinu melech ha-olam, boray p’ree hagafen"
—"Praised be the Eternal, Ruler of the universe, who makes the fruit of the vine."
Christianity
In
Christianity, wine is used in a sacred rite called the
Eucharist (grape juice is often used in Protestant communion, whereas the Eucharist must be celebrated with wine), which originates in
Gospel accounts of the
Last Supper in which
Jesus shared bread and wine with his disciples and commanded his followers to "do this in remembrance of me" (
Gospel of Luke 22:19). Beliefs about the nature of the Eucharist vary among
denominations.
Roman Catholics, for example, believe that when a bishop or priest says the words of
Jesus, "This is the cup of my blood," over the chalice of wine, the substance or "whatness" of the wine is miraculously changed into the blood of Christ while the accidents or sensible appearances of the wine remain the same. This change is called
transubstantiation
.
Orthodox Christians believe similarly, although without using the word transubstantiation. However, both Catholic and Orthodox consider the use of wine from the grape as essential for validity of the
sacrament.
Wine was used in Eucharistic rites by all Protestant groups until an alternative arose in 1869.
Methodist minister-turned-
dentist Thomas Bramwell Welch applied new
pasteurization techniques to stop the natural fermentation process of
grape juice. Some Christians who were part of the growing
temperance movement pressed for a switch from wine to grape juice, and the substitution spread quickly over much of the United States. (However, in such rites the beverage is usually still called "wine" in accordance with scriptural references.)
[53] There remains an ongoing debate between some American
Protestant denominations as to whether wine can and should be used for the Eucharist or allowed as a regular beverage.
Islam
It is only permitted for medicinal reasons. Iran used to have a
thriving wine industry that disappeared after the
Islamic Revolution in 1979.
[54] In
Iran (Persia),
mei
(Persian wine) has been a central theme of
poetry for more than a thousand years.
Health effects