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Economy

thumb thumb connects the vast nation to its capital, and to neighbouring Uruguay. International flights operate through Ministro Pistarini Airport at Ezeiza.thumb Argentina has abundant natural resources, a well-educated population, an export-oriented agricultural sector and a relatively diversified industrial base. Domestic instability and global trends, however, contributed to Argentina's decline from its noteworthy position as the world's 10th wealthiest nation per capita in 1913 to that of an upper-middle income economy. [59] Though no consensus exists explaining this, systemic problems have included increasingly burdensome debt, uncertainty over the monetary system, excessive regulation, barriers to free trade, and a weak rule of law coupled with corruption and a bloated bureaucracy. Even during its era of decline between 1930 and 1980, however, the Argentine economy created Latin America's largest proportional middle class; but this segment of the population has suffered from a series of economic crises between 1981 and 2002, when the relative decline became absolute.

Argentina's economy started to slowly lose ground after 1930 [60] when it entered the Great Depression and recovered slowly, afterwards. Erratic policies helped lead to serious bouts of stagflation in the 1949-52 and 1959-63 cycles and the country lost its place among the world's prosperous nations, even as it continued to industrialize. Following a promising decade, the economy further declined during the military dictatorship that lasted from 1976 to 1983 and for some time afterwards. [61] The dictatorship's chief economist, José Alfredo Martínez de Hoz, advanced a disorganized and corrupt financial liberalization that increased the debt burden and interrupted industrial development and upward social mobility; over 400,000 companies of all sizes went bankrupt by 1982 and economic decisions made from 1983 through 2001 failed to revert the situation.

Record foreign debt interest payments, tax evasion and capital flight resulted in a balance of payments crisis that plagued Argentina with serious stagflation from 1975 to 1990. Attempting to remedy this, economist Domingo Cavallo pegged the peso to the U.S. dollar in 1991 and limited the growth in the money supply. His team then embarked on a path of trade liberalization, deregulation and privatization. Inflation dropped and GDP grew by one third in four years; but external economic shocks and failures of the system diluted benefits, causing the economy to crumble slowly from 1995 until the collapse in 2001. That year and the next, the economy suffered its sharpest decline since 1930; by 2002, Argentina had defaulted on its debt, its GDP had shrunk, unemployment reached 25% and the peso had depreciated 70% after being devalued and floated.

In 2003 expansionary policies and commodity exports triggered a rebound in GDP. This trend has been largely maintained, creating millions of jobs and encouraging internal consumption. The socio-economic situation has been steadily improving and the economy grew around 9% annually for five consecutive years between 2003 and 2007 and 7% in 2008. Inflation, however, though officially hovering around 9% since 2006, has been privately estimated at over 15%, [62] becoming a contentious issue again. The urban income poverty rate has dropped to 18% as of mid-2008, a third of the peak level observed in 2002, though still above the level prior to 1976. [63] [64] Income distribution, having improved since 2002, is still considerably unequal. [65] [66]

Argentina faces slowing economic growth in light of an international financial crisis. The Kirchner administration responded at the end of 2008 with a record US$32 billion public-works program for 2009-10 and a further US$4 billion in new tax cuts and subsidies. [67] [68] Kirchner has also nationalized private pensions, which required growing subsidies to cover, in a move designed to shed a budgetary drain as well as to finance high government spending and debt obligations. [69] [70]

Government

thumb thumb thumb The Argentine Constitution of 1853 mandates a separation of powers into executive, legislative, and judicial branches at the national and provincial level. Argentina's political framework is a federal presidential representative democratic republic, in which the President of Argentina is both head of state and head of government, complemented by a pluriform multi-party system.

Executive power resides in the President and the Cabinet. The President and Vice President are directly elected to four-year terms and are limited to two terms. Cabinet ministers are appointed by the president and are not subject to legislative ratification. The current president is Cristina Fernández de Kirchner, with Julio Cobos as vice president.

Legislative power is vested in the bicameral the bicameral Congreso de la Nación , consisting of a Senate (Senado ) of 72 seats, and a Chamber of Deputies (Cámara de Diputados ) of 257 members. Senators serve six-year terms, with one-third standing for re-election every two years. Members of the Chamber of Deputies are directly elected to four-year term via a system of proportional representation, with half of the members of the lower house being elected every two years. A third of the candidates presented by the parties must be women.

The judiciary is independent of the executive and the legislature. The Supreme Court of Argentina has seven members appointed by the President in consultation with the Senate. The judges of all the other courts are appointed by the Council of Magistrates of the Nation, a secretariat composed of representatives of judges, lawyers, the Congress and the executive.

Though declared the capital in 1853, Buenos Aires did not become the official capital until 1880. There have been moves to relocate the administrative centre elsewhere. During the presidency of Raúl Alfonsín, a law was passed to transfer the federal capital to the city of Viedma in the Patagonian province of Río Negro. Studies were underway when economic problems halted the project in 1989. Though the law was never formally repealed, it is now treated as a relic.

Argentina is divided into twenty-three provinces (provincias ; singular provincia ), and one autonomous city:

# Buenos Aires City # Buenos Aires Province # Catamarca Province # Chaco Province # Chubut Province # Córdoba Province # Corrientes Province # Entre Ríos Province # Formosa Province # Jujuy Province # La Pampa Province # La Rioja Province # Mendoza Province # Misiones Province # Neuquén Province # Río Negro Province # Salta Province # San Juan Province # San Luis Province # Santa Cruz Province # Santa Fe Province # Santiago del Estero Province # Tierra del Fuego
and disputed areas of Antarctica and the South Atlantic
# Tucumán Province


Image:Argentina - Político 2.png|thumb|right|350px|Argentine provinces and territorial claims poly 157 837 163 895 241 890 158 835 Tierra del Fuego poly 89 663 67 748 62 780 78 799 90 790 99 793 92 799 92 811 105 824 132 822 144 822 154 826 162 824 147 777 164 764 169 739 197 708 199 691 165 660 Santa Cruz poly 65 565 75 636 90 663 161 659 206 615 223 576 236 562 233 552 205 550 75 556 Chubut poly 76 557 71 538 139 478 139 435 148 441 147 446 156 450 158 446 176 465 204 466 241 476 240 515 252 523 240 530 210 517 204 523 208 547 Rio Negro poly 71 536 76 475 88 465 73 443 78 412 87 398 109 431 116 424 138 434 138 477 Neuquen poly 136 430 143 432 156 445 181 467 207 463 242 475 242 365 202 365 202 391 136 392 La Pampa poly 254 523 240 515 243 348 277 348 301 324 309 325 349 340 346 352 375 375 370 394 383 405 360 453 310 469 274 472 260 460 263 514 Buenos Aires rect 340 351 349 360 Ciudad Autonoma de Buenos Aires poly 253 347 279 347 300 325 308 322 297 302 302 276 327 246 327 213 340 201 341 184 346 181 280 179 268 240 277 252 268 279 268 287 279 311 Santa Fe poly 201 365 243 363 242 347 251 347 277 312 269 290 269 276 276 254 267 240 257 240 258 232 253 226 227 222 208 220 202 224 206 227 197 236 185 259 186 284 205 295 Cordoba poly 168 391 201 390 200 320 203 314 205 306 205 296 199 297 191 286 178 286 174 288 158 283 148 285 147 294 156 303 151 312 153 321 166 339 166 357 174 364 San Luis poly 88 397 89 405 111 431 114 423 139 435 138 405 135 393 169 393 172 376 173 366 165 360 165 344 165 339 153 322 150 310 157 304 148 296 137 293 136 288 121 297 108 289 96 296 98 302 88 305 90 327 95 327 99 344 90 361 89 370 83 377 89 388 Mendoza poly 147 285 160 285 154 272 154 263 150 258 151 250 142 243 123 228 109 228 113 212 109 204 99 195 92 198 92 216 86 219 88 230 90 242 88 246 83 243 78 259 83 267 76 266 74 273 79 288 84 290 81 295 91 307 94 295 109 290 120 297 133 287 148 296 San Juan poly 161 283 170 289 186 284 185 257 195 237 169 205 168 196 157 187 150 192 141 192 134 192 130 186 127 187 122 180 122 175 114 177 106 177 102 183 101 190 94 194 107 203 110 210 110 224 118 228 124 226 140 239 152 250 151 259 La Rioja poly 101 177 112 177 121 177 128 188 130 185 137 190 149 192 152 187 164 188 170 195 171 203 189 216 192 224 195 238 206 231 202 224 208 222 206 202 196 194 199 181 195 175 189 181 183 176 182 161 175 161 175 157 181 154 181 147 174 143 175 136 175 130 170 138 160 121 163 108 143 108 137 109 120 106 115 106 115 116 120 131 113 138 122 151 121 158 113 156 Catamarca poly 117 103 131 109 142 108 165 108 165 115 159 122 168 137 175 133 184 136 186 129 195 129 213 136 217 119 240 118 267 85 267 38 253 21 241 21 235 25 228 20 222 24 223 31 216 38 209 29 205 24 197 23 192 36 199 47 202 57 204 60 215 59 219 58 221 75 214 80 215 89 206 89 186 86 179 77 176 66 170 59 167 62 168 80 160 82 152 73 148 69 120 87 112 98 Salta poly 144 71 151 69 158 76 166 80 171 69 166 60 169 56 174 62 178 72 182 75 186 85 192 85 206 88 210 84 213 87 214 76 221 76 221 57 216 60 202 60 198 50 190 40 194 23 184 23 178 19 169 12 166 19 160 27 156 33 150 35 145 43 151 50 Jujuy poly 178 134 183 140 189 134 186 131 187 127 192 129 202 134 212 135 217 141 202 164 205 174 198 180 196 175 190 179 181 175 182 160 175 160 182 147 175 142 Tucuman poly 217 122 220 117 225 120 237 120 243 117 280 118 282 179 268 239 258 241 258 231 254 227 239 228 232 220 225 222 207 222 208 215 205 211 205 198 197 194 199 188 199 179 204 176 203 167 218 143 214 137 Santiago del Estero poly 239 118 282 119 279 181 346 181 346 162 361 153 344 137 337 138 312 108 277 87 277 82 266 79 266 87 Chaco poly 266 77 280 87 308 99 338 136 344 136 361 152 366 138 379 118 387 115 374 102 368 100 356 95 353 96 332 86 326 76 310 69 302 71 266 37 Formosa poly 325 247 341 238 348 238 351 236 358 240 366 255 368 243 383 234 380 231 384 222 391 224 401 214 408 209 415 198 422 190 416 175 420 165 408 171 405 169 398 171 368 158 357 158 347 166 347 176 341 187 339 201 327 215 Corrientes poly 418 165 413 174 422 190 428 188 439 177 447 181 457 170 466 163 476 146 471 139 471 132 466 119 459 118 452 118 450 125 447 145 441 154 423 164 Misiones poly 303 277 318 262 326 247 343 238 349 238 359 240 362 246 365 253 370 256 370 266 364 274 363 280 359 282 359 289 356 301 355 316 349 320 349 339 311 328 299 312 299 309 298 296 302 281 Entre Rios rect 257 774 353 841 Falkland Islands poly 457 926 373 746 424 726 463 725 491 729 541 746 Antartida Argentina desc bottom-left
Provinces are divided into smaller secondary units called departamentos ("departments"), of which there are 376 in total. Buenos Aires Province has 134 similar divisions known as partidos . Departamentos and partidos are further subdivided into municipalities or districts.

Foreign policy

Argentina is a full member of the Mercosur block together with Brazil, Paraguay, Uruguay and Venezuela; and five associate members: Bolivia, Chile, Colombia, Ecuador and Peru. As of 2006, Argentina has been emphasizing Mercosur, which has some legislative supranational functions, as its first international priority; by contrast, during the 1990s, it relied more heavily on its relationship with the United States. Argentina is also a founding signatory and permanent consulting member of the Antarctic Treaty System and the Antarctic Treaty Secretariat is established in Buenos Aires. [71]

While Argentina has employed threats and force to pursue its claims against Chile in the Beagle channel and Laguna del Desierto, against Britain in Antarctica [72] and the Falklands, as well as against illegal trawlers, this constituted the exception rather than the rule in Argentine international relations.

Argentina has also long claimed sovereignty over the Falkland Islands (Islas Malvinas ), the South Shetland Islands, the South Sandwich Islands and almost 1 million km² in Antarctica, between the 25°W and the 74°W meridians and the 60°S parallel. Claimed by the United Kingdom, they have occupied this area since 1833, though since 1904 the Orcadas Base, an Argentine scientific post, has been maintained by mutual agreement.

Argentina was the only country from Latin America to participate in the 1991 Gulf War under mandate of the United Nations. It was also the only Latin American country involved in every phase of Operation Uphold Democracy in Haiti. Argentina has contributed worldwide to peacekeeping operations, including those in El Salvador, Honduras, Nicaragua, Guatemala, the Ecuador-Peru dispute, Western Sahara, Angola, Kuwait, Cyprus, Croatia, Kosovo, Bosnia and Timor Leste. In recognition of its contributions to international security, U.S. President Bill Clinton designated Argentina as a major non-NATO ally in January 1998. It was last elected as a temporary member of the UN Security Council in 2005. The United Nations White Helmets, a bulwark of peacekeeping and humanitarian aid efforts, were first deployed in 1994 following an Argentine initiative. [73]

Military

thumb The President of Argentina is Commander-in-Chief of the country’s armed forces, with the Defense Ministry also exercising control. Historically, Argentina's military has been one of the best equipped in the region (for example, developing its own advanced jet fighters as early as the 1950s); [74] but, of late, it has faced sharper expenditure cutbacks than most other armed forces in Latin America. Indeed, after 1981, real military expenditures declined steadily, and though these have recently increased, the defense budget today is of around US$6 billion. [75]

The minimum age for enlistment in the armed forces is 18 years; there is no obligatory military service and currently no conscription. Recently, Argentina's armed forces have numbered about 70,000 active duty personnel, a reduction of over a third from levels before the return to democracy in 1983. [76]

The armed forces are composed of the Army, Navy, and Air Force. The Interior Ministry controls the Naval Prefecture (which patrols Argentine territorial waters) and the National Gendarmerie (which patrols the border regions); both arms however maintain liaison with the Defense Ministry. Argentina's armed forces are currently undertaking major peacekeeping operations in Haiti and Cyprus.

Transportation

thumbthumb Argentina's transport infrastructure is relatively advanced. [77] There are over 230,000 km (144,000 mi) of roads (not including private rural roads) of which 72,000 km (45,000 mi) are paved [78] and 1,575 km (980 mi) are expressways, [79] many of which are privatized tollways. Having doubled in length in recent years, multilane expressways now connect several major cities with more under construction. [80] Expressways are, however, currently inadequate to deal with local traffic, as 9.2 million motor vehicles are registered nationally as of 2008 (230 per 1000 population). [81]

thumb The railway network has a total length of 34,059 km (21,170 mi). [82] After decades of declining service and inadequate maintenance, most intercity passenger services shut down in 1992 when the rail company was privatized, and thousands of kilometers of track (excluding the above total) are now in disuse. Metropolitan rail services in and around Buenos Aires remained in great demand, however, owing in part to their easy access to the Buenos Aires subway, and intercity rail services are currently being reactivated along numerous lines.

Inaugurated in 1913, the Buenos Aires Metro was the first subway system built in Latin America and the Southern Hemisphere. [83] It is no longer the most extensive in Latin America; but, its of track carry nearly 900,000 passengers daily. [84]

Argentina has around of navigable waterways, and these carry more cargo than do the country's renown freight railways. [85] This includes an extensive network of canals, though Argentina is blessed with ample natural waterways, as well; the most significant among these being the Río de la Plata, Paraná, Uruguay, Río Negro and Paraguay rivers.

Flora

thumb is the National Flower of Argentina Subtropical plants dominate the north, part of the Gran Chaco region of South America. The genus Dalbergia of trees is well disseminated with representatives like the Brazilian Rosewood and the quebracho tree; also predominant are white and black algarrobo trees (prosopis alba and prosopis nigra). Savannah -like areas exist in the drier regions nearer the Andes. Aquatic plants thrive in the wetlands dotting the region.

In central Argentina the humid pampas are a true tallgrass prairie ecosystem. The original pampa had virtually no trees; today along roads or in towns and country estates (estancias ), some imported species like the American sycamore or eucalyptus are present. The only tree-like plant native to the pampa is the ombú, an evergreen. The surface soils of the pampa are a deep black color, primarily mollisols, known commonly as humus . This is what makes the region one of the most agriculturaly productive on Earth; however, this is also responsible for decimating much of the original ecosystem, to make way for commercial agriculture. The western pampas receive less rainfall, this dry pampa is a plain of short grasses or steppe. [86]

Most of Patagonia in the south lies within the rain shadow of the Andes. The flora, shrubby bushes and plants, is well suited to withstand dry conditions. The soil is hard and rocky, making large-scale farming impossible except along river valleys. Coniferous forests grow in far western Patagonia and on the island of Tierra del Fuego. Conifers native to the region include alerce (Fitzroya cupressoides ), ciprés de la cordillera (Austrocedrus chilensis ), ciprés de las guaitecas (Pilgerodendron uviferum ), huililahuán (Podocarpus nubigenus ), lleuque (Prumnopitys andina ), mañío hembra (Saxegothaea conspicua ) and pehuén (Araucaria araucana ), while native broadleaf trees include several species of Nothofagus including coigüe or coihue, lenga (Nothofagus pumilio ) and ñire (Nothofagus Antarctica ). Other introduced trees present in forestry plantations include spruce, cypress and pine. Common plants are the copihue and colihue (Chusquea culeou ). [87]

In Cuyo, semiarid thorny bushes and other xerophile plants abound. Along the many river oasis, grasses and trees grow in significant numbers. The area presents optimal conditions for the large scale growth of grape vines. In the northwest of Argentina there are many species of cacti. In the highest elevations (above 4,000 m or 13,000 ft), no vegetation grows because of the extreme altitude.

Fauna

thumb is one of the national emblems of Argentina Many species live in the subtropical north. Big cats like the jaguar, cougar, and ocelot; primates (howler monkey); large reptiles (crocodiles),Argentine Black and White Tegu and a species of caiman. Other animals include the tapir, peccary, capybara, bush dog, raccoon and various species of turtle and tortoise. There are a wide variety of birds, notably hummingbirds, flamingos, toucans and swallows.

The central grasslands are populated by the giant anteater, armadillo, pampas cat, maned wolf, mara, cavias and the rhea (ñandú ), a flightless bird. Hawks, falcons, herons and tinamous (perdiz , Argentine "false partridges") inhabit the region. There are also pampas deer and pampas foxes. Some of these species extend into Patagonia.

thumb The western mountains are home to different animals. These include the llama, guanaco, vicuña, among the most recognizable species of South America. Also in this region are the fox, viscacha, Andean Mountain Cat, kodkod and the largest flying bird in the New World, the Andean Condor.

Southern Argentina is home to the cougar, huemul, pudú (the world's smallest deer), and introduced, non-native wild boar. The coast of Patagonia is rich in animal life: elephant seals, fur seals, sea lions and species of penguin. The far south is populated by cormorants.

The territorial waters of Argentina have abundant ocean life; mammals such as dolphins, orcas, and whales like the southern right whale, a major tourist draw for naturalists. Sea fish include sardines, Argentine hakes, dolphinfish, salmon, and sharks; also present are squid and spider crab (centolla ) in Tierra del Fuego. Rivers and streams in Argentina have many species of trout and the South American dorado fish. Outstanding snake species inhabiting Argentina include boa constrictors and the very venomous yarará pit viper and South American rattle snake. The Hornero was elected the National Bird after a survey in 1928. [88]

Culture

thumb

Argentine culture has significant European influences. Buenos Aires, considered by many its cultural capital, is often said to be the most European city in South America, as a result both of the prevalence of people of European descent and of conscious imitation of European styles in architecture. The other big influence is the gauchos and their traditional country lifestyle of self-reliance. Finally, indigenous American traditions (like yerba mate infusions) have been absorbed into the general cultural milieu.

Literature



Argentina has a rich history of world-class literature, including one of the twentieth century's most critically acclaimed writers, Jorge Luis Borges. The country has been a leader in Latin American literature since becoming a fully united entity in the 1850s, with a strong constitution and a defined nation-building plan. The struggle between the Federalists (who favored a loose confederation of provinces based on rural conservatism) and the Unitarians (pro-liberalism and advocates of a strong central government that would encourage European immigration), set the tone for Argentine literature of the time.

The ideological divide between gaucho epic Martín Fierro by José Hernández, and Facundo [90] by Domingo Faustino Sarmiento, is a great example. Hernández, a federalist, opposed to the centralizing, modernizing and Europeanizing tendencies. Sarmiento wrote immigration was the only way to save Argentina from becoming subject to the rule of a small number of dictatorial caudillo families, arguing such immigrants would make Argentina more modern and open to Western European influences and therefore a more prosperous society.

Argentine literature of that period was fiercely nationalist. It was followed by the modernist movement, which emerged in France in the late nineteenth century, and this period in turn was followed by vanguardism, with Ricardo Güiraldes as an important reference. Jorge Luis Borges, its most acclaimed writer, found new ways of looking at the modern world in metaphor and philosophical debate and his influence has extended to writers all over the globe. Borges is most famous for his works in short stories such as Ficciones and The Aleph .

Argentina has produced many more internationally noted writers, poets and intellectuals: Juan Bautista Alberdi, Roberto Arlt, Enrique Banchs, Adolfo Bioy Casares, Silvina Bullrich, Eugenio Cambaceres, Julio Cortázar, Esteban Echeverría, Leopoldo Lugones, Eduardo Mallea, Ezequiel Martínez Estrada, Tomás Eloy Martínez, Victoria Ocampo, Manuel Puig, Ernesto Sabato, Osvaldo Soriano, Alfonsina Storni and María Elena Walsh. A number of Argentine caricaturists have also become influential: Roberto Fontanarrosa's grotesque characters captured life's absurdities with quick-witted commentary and Quino (born Joaquin Salvador Lavado ), has entertained readers the world over, while dipping into current events with soup-hating Mafalda and her comic strip gang.

Film and theatre

thumbthumb Argentina is a major producer of motion pictures. The world's first animated feature films were made and released in Argentina, by cartoonist Quirino Cristiani, in 1917 and 1918. Argentine cinema enjoyed a 'golden age' in the 1930s through the 1950s with scores of productions, many now considered classics of Spanish-language film. The industry produced actors who became the first movie stars of Argentine cinema, often tango performers such as Libertad Lamarque, Floren Delbene, Tito Lusiardo, Tita Merello, Roberto Escalada and Hugo del Carril.

More recent films from the "New Wave" of cinema since the 1980s have achieved worldwide recognition, such as The Official Story (La historia official) , Nine Queens (Nueve reinas) , Man Facing Southeast (Hombre mirando al sudeste) , Son of the Bride (El hijo de la novia) , The Motorcycle Diaries (Diarios de motocicleta) , or Iluminados por el fuego . Although rarely rivaling Hollywood-type movies in popularity, local films are released weekly and widely followed in Argentina and internationally. Even low-budget films have earned prizes in cinema festivals (such as Cannes), and are promoted by events such as the Mar del Plata Film Festival and the Buenos Aires International Festival of Independent Cinema.

The per capita number of screens is one of the highest in Latin America, and viewing per capita is the highest in the region. A new generation of Argentine directors has caught the attention of critics worldwide. [91] Argentina is a major center of cinema; its levels of cinema-attendance are comparable to those of European countries. An example of this was Spider-Man 3 which took in 466,586 the first day—a record in Argentina. In Italy it took in 400,000 and Germany 486,571, breaking all records for first day release. [92] Argentine composers Luis Enrique Bacalov, Gustavo Santaolalla and Eugenio Zanetti are Academy Award winners. Lalo Schiffrin has received numerous Grammys and is best known for the Mission:Impossible theme.

Buenos Aires is one of the great capitals of theater. The Teatro Colón is a national landmark for opera and classical performances. Built at the end of the 19th century, Teatro Colón's acoustic is considered the best in the world. Currently it is undergoing major refurbishment, in order to preserve its outstanding sound characteristics, the French-romantic style, the impressive Golden Room (a minor auditorium targeted to Chamber Music performances) and the museum at the entrance. With its program of national and international caliber, Calle Corrientes , or Corrientes Avenue, is synonymous with the art. It is thought of as 'the street that never sleeps' and sometimes referred to as the Broadway of Buenos Aires. [93] Many great careers in acting, music, and film have begun in its many theaters. The Teatro General San Martín is one of the most prestigious along Corrientes Avenue and the Teatro Nacional Cervantes functions as the national stage theater of Argentina. The El Círculo in Rosario, Independencia in Mendoza and Libertador in Córdoba are also prominent. Griselda Gambaro, Roberto Cossa and Carlos Gorostiza are Argentine playwrights well-known internationally. Julio Bocca and Jorge Donn are two of the great ballet dancers of the modern era.

Architecture, painting and sculpture

thumb and Neoclassical architecture in downtown Buenos Airesthumb'sthumb Numerous Argentine architects have enriched their own country's cityscapes and, in recent decades, those around the world. Juan Antonio Buschiazzo helped popularize Beaux-Arts architecture and Francisco Gianotti combined Art Nouveau with Italianate styles, each adding flair to Argentine cities during the early 20th century. Francisco Salamone and Viktor Sulcic left an Art Deco legacy. Clorindo Testa introduced Brutalist architecture locally and César Pelli's and Patricio Pouchulu's Futurist creations have graced cities, worldwide. Pelli's 1980s throwbacks to the Art Deco glory of the 1920s, in particular, made him one of the world's most prestigious architects.

One of the most influential Argentine figures in fine arts was Xul Solar, whose surrealist work used watercolors as readily as unorthodox painting media; he also "invented" two imaginary languages. The works of Cándido López (in Naïve art style), Ernesto de la Cárcova and Eduardo Sívori (realism), Fernando Fader (impressionism), Pío Collivadino (post-impressionist), Emilio Pettoruti (cubist), Antonio Berni (neo-figurative), Gyula Košice (constructivism) and Guillermo Kuitca (abstract) are appreciated internationally.

Benito Quinquela Martín is considered to be the quintessential 'port' painter, for which the city of Buenos Aires and the working class and immigrant-bound La Boca neighborhood, in particular, was excellently suited. A similar environment inspired Adolfo Bellocq, whose lithographs have been influential since the 1920s. Realist sculptors Erminio Blotta's, Lola Mora's and Rogelio Yrurtia's evocative monuments became the part of the national landscape and today, Lucio Fontana and León Ferrari are acclaimed sculptors and conceptual artists. Ciruelo is a world-famous fantasy artist and sculptor and Eduardo Mac Entyre's geometric designs have influenced advertisers worldwide since the 1970s.

Food and drink

Besides many of the pasta, sausage and dessert dishes common to continental Europe, Argentines enjoy a wide variety of indigenous creations, which include empanadas (a stuffed pastry), locro (a mixture of corn, beans, meat, bacon, onion, and gourd), humitas and yerba mate, all originally indigenous Amerindian staples, the latter considered Argentina's national beverage. Other popular items include chorizo (a spicy sausage), facturas (Viennese-style pastry) and Dulce de Leche.

thumb The Argentine barbecue, asado as well as a parrillada , includes various types of meats, among them chorizo , sweetbread, chitterlings, and morcilla (blood sausage). Thin sandwiches, sandwiches de miga, are also popular. Argentines have the highest consumption of red meat in the world. [94]

The Argentine wine industry, long among the largest outside Europe, has benefited from growing investment since 1992; in 2007, 60% of foreign investment worldwide in viticulture was destined to Argentina. [95] The country is the fifth most important wine producer in the world, with the annual per capita consumption of wine among the highest. Malbec grape, a discardable varietal in France (country of origin), has found in the Province of Mendoza an ideal environment to successfully develop and turn itself into the world's best Malbec. Mendoza is one of the eight wine capitals of the world [96] and accounts for 70% of the country's total wine production. "Wine tourism" is important in Mendoza province, with the impressive landscape of the Cordillera de Los Andes and the highest peak in the Americas, Mount Aconcagua, high, providing a very desirable destination for international tourism.

Sports

thumb about to score against France in the 2007 Rugby World Cup The official national sport of Argentina is pato, [97] played with a six-handle ball on horseback, but the most popular sport is association football. [98] The national football team has won 25 major international titles [99] including two FIFA World Cups, two Olympic gold medals and fourteen Copa Américas. [100] Over one thousand Argentine players play abroad, the majority of them in European football leagues. [101] There are 331,811 registered football players, [102] with increasing numbers of girls and women, who have organized their own national championships since 1991 and were South American champions in 2006.

The Argentine Football Association (AFA) was formed in 1893 and is the eighth oldest national football association in the world. The 1891 league tournament in Argentina was the third in football history, after England and the Netherlands. The AFA today counts 3,377 football clubs, including 20 in the Premier Division. Since the AFA went professional in 1931, fifteen teams have won national tournament titles, including River Plate with 33 and Boca Juniors with 24. [103] Over the last twenty years, futsal and beach soccer have become increasingly popular. The Argentine beach football team was one of four competitors in the first international championship for the sport, in Miami, in 1993. [104]

Argentina has an important rugby union football team, "Los Pumas", with many of its players playing in Europe. Argentina beat host nation France twice in the 2007 Rugby World Cup, placing them third in the competition. The Pumas are currently sixth in the official world rankings. Basketball is also popular; a number of basketball players play in the U.S. National Basketball Association and European leagues including Manu Ginóbili, Andrés Nocioni, Carlos Delfino and Fabricio Oberto. The men's national basketball team won Olympic gold in the 2004 Olympics and the bronze medal in 2008. Argentina is currently ranked first by the International Basketball Federation. Other popular sports include field hockey (particularly amongst women), tennis, auto racing, boxing, volleyball, polo and golf.

Music

thumb vocalists Tango , the music and lyrics (often sung in a form of slang called lunfardo), is Argentina's musical symbol. The Milonga dance was a predecessor, slowly evolving into modern tango . By the 1930s, tango had changed from a dance-focused music to one of lyric and poetry, with singers like Carlos Gardel, Hugo del Carril, Roberto Goyeneche, Raúl Lavié, Tita Merello and Edmundo Rivero. The golden age of tango (1930 to mid-1950s) mirrored that of Jazz and Swing in the United States, featuring large orchestral groups too, like the bands of Osvaldo Pugliese, Anibal Troilo, Francisco Canaro, Julio de Caro and Juan D'Arienzo. Incorporating acoustic music and later, synthesizers into the genre after 1955, bandoneon virtuoso Astor Piazzolla popularized "new tango" creating a more subtle, intellectual and listener-oriented trend. Today tango enjoys worldwide popularity; ever-evolving, neo-tango is a global phenomenon with renown groups like Tanghetto, Bajofondo and the Gotan Project. thumb musician
Charly García Argentine rock, called rock nacional , is the most popular music among youth. Arguably the most listened form of Spanish-language rock, its influence and success internationally owes to a rich, uninterrupted development. Bands such as Soda Stereo or Sumo, and composers like Charly García, Luis Alberto Spinetta, and Fito Páez are referents of national culture. Mid-1960s Buenos Aires and Rosario were cradles of the music and by 1970, Argentine rock was well-established among middle class youth (see Almendra, Sui Generis, Pappo, Crucis). Seru Giran bridged the gap into the 1980s, when Argentine bands became popular across Latin America and elsewhere (Enanitos Verdes, Fabulosos Cadillacs, Virus, Andrés Calamaro). There are many sub-genres: underground, pop-oriented and some associated with the working class (La Renga, Attaque 77, Divididos, Hermética, V8 and Los Redonditos). Current popular bands include: Babasonicos, Rata Blanca, Horcas, Attaque 77, Bersuit, Los Piojos, Intoxicados, Catupecu Machu, Carajo and Miranda!.

thumb European classical music is well represented in Argentina. Buenos Aires is home to the world-renowned Colón Theater. Classical musicians, such as Martha Argerich, Eduardo Alonso-Crespo, Daniel Barenboim, Juan José Castro, Eduardo Delgado and Alberto Lysy, and classical composers such as Juan José Castro and Alberto Ginastera are internationally acclaimed. All major cities in Argentina have impressive theaters or opera houses, and provincial or city orchestras. Some cities have annual events and important classical music festivals like Semana Musical Llao Llao in San Carlos de Bariloche and the multitudinous Amadeus in Buenos Aires.

Argentine folk music is uniquely vast. Beyond dozens of regional dances, a national folk style emerged in the 1930s. Perón's Argentina would give rise to Nueva Canción, as artists began expressing in their music objections to political themes. Atahualpa Yupanqui, the greatest Argentine folk musician, and Mercedes Sosa would be defining figures in shaping Nueva Canción, gaining worldwide popularity in the process. The style found a huge reception in Chile, where it took off in the 1970s and went on to influence the entirety of Latin American music. [105] Today, Chango Spasiuk and Soledad Pastorutti have brought folk back to younger generations. Leon Gieco's folk-rock bridged the gap between Argentine folklore and Argentine rock, introducing both styles to millions overseas in successive tours.

Holidays

thumb's National Flag Memorial, Rosario

Though holidays of many faiths are respected, public holidays usually include most Catholic holidays. Historic holidays include the celebration of the May Revolution (25 May), the Independence Day (9 July), National Flag Day (20 June) and the death of José de San Martín (17 August).

The extended family gathers on Christmas Eve at around 9 p.m. for dinner, music, and often dancing. Candies are served just before midnight, when the fireworks begin. They also open gifts from Papá Noel (Father Christmas or "Santa Claus"). New Year's Day is also marked with fireworks. Other widely observed holidays include Good Friday, Easter, Labor Day (1 May) and Sovereignty Day (formerly Malvinas Day, 2 April).

Education

After independence, Argentina constructed a national public education system in comparison to other nations, placing the country high up in the global rankings of literacy. Today the country has a literacy rate of 97%, and three in eight adults over age 20 have completed secondary school studies or higher. thumb School attendance is compulsory between the ages of 5 and 17. The Argentine school system consists of a primary or lower school level lasting six or seven years, and a secondary or high school level lasting between five to six years. In the 1990s, the system was split into different types of high school instruction, called Educacion Secundaria and the Polimodal . Some provinces adopted the Polimodal while others did not. A project in the executive branch to repeal this measure and return to a more traditional secondary level system was approved in 2006. [106] President Domingo Faustino Sarmiento is overwhelmingly credited in pushing and implementing a free, modern education system in Argentina. The 1918 university reform shaped the current tripartite representation of most public universities.

Education is funded by tax payers at all levels except for the majority of graduate studies. There are many private school institutions in the primary, secondary and university levels. Around 11.4 million people were enrolled in formal education of some kind in 2006, including 1.5 million in one of the nation's 85 universities.

Public education in Argentina is tuition-free from the primary to the university levels. Though literacy was nearly universal as early as 1947, the majority of Argentine youth had little access to education beyond the compulsory seven years of grade school during the first half of the 20th century; since then, when the tuition-free system was extended to the secondary and university levels, demand for these facilities has often outstripped budgets (particularly since the 1970s). [107] Consequently, public education is now widely found wanting and in decline; this has helped private education flourish, though it has also caused a marked inequity between those who can afford it (usually the middle and upper classes) and the rest of society, as private schools often have no scholarship systems in place. Roughly one in four primary and secondary students and one in six university students attend private institutions.

There are thirty-eight public universities across the country, [108] as well as numerous private ones. The University of Buenos Aires, Universidad Nacional de Córdoba, Universidad Nacional de La Plata, Universidad Nacional de Rosario, and the National Technological University are among the most important. Public universities faced cutbacks in spending during the 1980s and 1990s, which led to a decline in overall quality.

Health care

thumb Health care in Argentina is provided for through a combination of employer and labor union-sponsored plans (Obras Sociales ), government insurance plans, public hospitals and clinics and through private health insurance plans. Government efforts to improve public health in Argentina can be traced to Spanish Viceroy Juan José de Vértiz's first Medical Tribunal of 1780. [110] Following independence, the establishment of the University of Buenos Aires School of Medicine in 1822 was complemented by the one in the National University of Córdoba, in 1877. The training of doctors and nurses at these and other schools enabled the rapid development of health care cooperatives, which during the Administration of Juan Perón became publicly subsidized Obras Sociales . Today, these number over 300 (of which 200 are related to labor unions) and provide health care for half the Argentine population; the national INSSJP (popularly known as PAMI) covers nearly all of Argentina's five million senior citizens. [111]

Perón's Minister of Health, Dr. Ramón Carrillo, borrowed both from German Chancellor Otto von Bismarck's support for employer or guild-sponsored plans and British Health Minister William Beveridge's National Health Service. He advanced the widespread use of Obras Sociales , a form of health insurance cooperative, which was accompanied by the construction of over 4,000 public clinics and hospitals. [112] These (totaling 8,000) serve the roughly 40% of Argentines who belong to neither an Obra Social nor to one of 280 private health insurance companies operating in Argentina as of 2006. [113] Private health insurance in Argentina, which was first made available in 1932 by Dr. Alejandro Schvarzer, covered 1.1 million households in 2006 (about 10%) and collected monthly premiums of about US$100, on average (though larger families often pay US$300). This system operates nearly 10,000 clinics and 18,000 beds. [114]

Health care costs in Argentina amount to almost 10% of GDP and have been growing in pace with the percentage of Argentines over 65 (7% in 1970). Public and private spending have historically split this about evenly: public funds are mainly spent through Obras , which in turn, refer patients needing hospitalization to private and public clinics; private funds are spent evenly between private insurers' coverage and out-of-pocket expenses. [115] [116]

In all, Argentina has over 153,000 hospital beds, 121,000 physicians and 37,000 dentists (ratios comparable to those in developed nations). [117] The relatively high access to medical care Argentines have enjoyed has historically resulted in mortality patterns that are nearly similar to those in developed nations: from 1953 to 2005, deaths from cardiovascular disease have increased from 20% to 23% of the total, those from tumors from 14% to 20%, respiratory problems from 7% to 14%, digestive maladies (non-infectious) from 7% to 11%, strokes a steady 7%, injuries a steady 6% and infectious diseases, 4%. Causes related to senility led to many of the rest. Infant deaths, which accounted for 19% of all deaths in 1953, did so for only 3% in 2005. [118]

The availability of health care has helped reduce infant mortality in Argentina from 69 per 1000 live births in 1948 to 12.9 in 2006 and raised life expectancy at birth from 60 years to 76. [119] Though these figures compare favorably with global averages in both eras, they continue to fall somewhat short of levels seen in developed nations and in 2006, ranked fourth in Latin America.

Science and technology

thumb Argentina has contributed many distinguished doctors, scientists and inventors to the world, including three Nobel Prize laureates in sciences. Argentines have been responsible for major breakthroughs in world medicine; their research has led to significant advances in wound-healing therapies and in the treatment of heart disease and several forms of cancer. Domingo Liotta designed and developed the first artificial heart successfully implanted in a human being in 1969. René Favaloro developed the techniques and performed the world's first ever coronary bypass surgery and Francisco de Pedro invented a more reliable artificial cardiac pacemaker. Bernardo Houssay, the first Latin American awarded with a Nobel Prize, discovered the role of pituitary hormones in regulating glucose in animals; César Milstein did extensive research in antibodies; Luis Leloir discovered how organisms store energy converting glucose into glycogen and the compounds which are fundamental in metabolizing carbohydrates. Dr. Luis Agote devised the first safe method of blood transfusion, Enrique Finochietto designed operating table tools such as the surgical scissors that bear his name ("Finochietto scissors") and a surgical rib-spreader. [120] They have likewise contributed to bioscience in efforts like the Human Genome Project, where Argentine scientists have successfully mapped the genome of a living being, a world first. [121] [122]

thumb Argentina's nuclear program is highly advanced, having resulted in a research reactor in 1957 and Latin America's first on-line commercial reactor in 1974. Argentina developed its nuclear program without being overly dependent on foreign technology. Nuclear facilities with Argentine technology have been built in Peru, Algeria, Australia and Egypt. In 1983, the country admitted having the capability of producing weapon-grade uranium, a major step needed to assemble nuclear weapons; since then, however, Argentina has pledged to use nuclear power only for peaceful purposes. [123]

In other areas, Juan Vucetich, a Croatian immigrant, was the father of modern fingerprinting (dactiloscopy). [124] Raúl Pateras Pescara demonstrated the world's first flight of a helicopter, Hungarian-Argentine László Bíró mass-produced the first modern ball point pens and Eduardo Taurozzi developed the pendular combustion engine. [125] Juan Maldacena, an Argentine-American scientist, is a leading figure in string theory. An Argentine satellite, the PEHUENSAT-1 [126] was successfully launched on 10 January 2007 using the Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle (PSLV). The Pierre Auger Observatory near Malargüe, Mendoza, is the world's foremost cosmic ray observatory. [127]

Communications and media

Print

thumb The print media industry in Argentina is highly developed and independent of the government. There are over two hundred newspapers in the country. The major national newspapers are from Buenos Aires, including the centrist Clarín , the best-selling daily in Latin America and the second most-widely circulated in the Spanish-speaking world. [128] Other nationally circulated papers are La Nación (center-right) published since 1870, Página/12 (left), Ámbito Financiero (business conservative), Olé (sports) and Crónica (populist). Two Argentine foreign language newspapers enjoy a relatively high circulation: the Argentinisches Tageblatt in German and the The Buenos Aires Herald , published since 1876.

Regional papers with especially high influence include La Voz del Interior (Córdoba), Diario Río Negro (General Roca, Rio Negro), Los Andes (Mendoza), La Capital (Rosario, Santa Fe), El Tribuno (Salta) and La Gaceta de Tucumán . The most circulated newsmagazine in Argentina is Noticias . [129]

The Argentine publishing industry ranks with those in Spain and Mexico as the most important in the Spanish speaking world. Argentine readers can avail themselves of the largest bookstore chains in Latin America, El Ateneo and Yenny .

Radio and television

thumb Argentina was a pioneering nation in radio broadcasting. At 9 pm on 27 August 1920, Sociedad Radio Argentina announced: "We now bring to your homes a live performance of Richard Wagner's Parsifal opera from the Coliseo Theater in downtown Buenos Aires" ; only about twenty homes in the city had a receiver to tune in. The world's first radio station was the only one in the country until 1922, when Radio Cultura went on the air; by 1925, there were twelve stations in Buenos Aires and ten in other cities. The 1930s were the "golden age" of radio in Argentina, with live variety, news, soap opera and sport shows. [130]

There are currently 260 AM broadcasting and 1150 FM broadcasting radio stations in Argentina. [131] Radio remains an important medium in Argentina. Music and youth variety programs dominate FM formats; news, debate, and sports are AM radio's primary broadcasts. Amateur radio is widespread in the country. Radio still serves a vital service of information, entertainment and even life saving in the most remote communities.

The Argentine television industry is large and diverse, widely viewed in Latin America, and its productions seen around the world. Many local programs are broadcast by networks in other countries, and others have their rights purchased by foreign producers for adaptations in their own markets. Argentina has five major networks. All provincial capitals and other large cities have at least one local station. Argentines enjoy the highest availability of cable and satellite television in Latin America, similar to percentages in North America. [132] Many cable networks operate from Argentina and serve the Spanish-speaking world, including Utilísima Satelital, TyC Sports, Fox Sports en Español (with the United States and México), MTV Argentina, Cosmopolitan TV and the news network Todo Noticias.

International rankings

Organization Survey Ranking
Columbia and Yale Universities Environmental Performance Index 38 out of 149
The Economist 40 out of 111
Fund for Peace Failed States Index 151 out of 177
Heritage Foundation/The Wall Street Journal Index of Economic Freedom 107 out of 157
International Living 13 out of 192
Reporters Without Borders Worldwide Press Freedom Index 68 out of 173
Transparency International Corruption Perceptions Index 105 out of 180
United Nations Development Programme Human Development Index 38 out of 177


See also

Argentina}}portal




  • Index of Argentina-related articles

References

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  71. Antarctic Treaty Secretariat
  72. See Relaciones bilaterales sin diálogo, 1945-1965''buques de la Armada Argentina llevaron a cabo maniobras en las aguas adyacentes a las Islas Malvinas realizaron desembarcos en distintas islas de las "Dependencias" … incidentes menores entre los presentes en el Puerto Melchior … en la Bahía Esperanza y la Argentina anunció una progresiva ocupación de esa región.…''
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  81. DNRPA
  82. Argentina.gov.ar
  83. Buenos Aires Transport Subway
  84. Política Económica - Página Principal
  85. ''Encyclopedia Britannica, Book of the Year (various issues): statistical appendix.''
  86. WWF
  87. [1] Animals in Argentina
  88. [1] Info about Hornero
  89. Borges, Jorge Luis. ''Siete Noches. Obras Completas, vol. III.'' Buenos Aires: Emecé, 1994.
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  92. 'Spider-Man 3' breaks Euro records - Entertainment News, Film News, Media - Variety
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  94. Choices Article - Modern Beef Production in Brazil and Argentina
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  125. Argentine Talent Without Frontiers
  126. PEHUENSAT-1
  127. Pierre Auger Observatory
  128. News
  129. Editorial Perfíl
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  131. Mi Buenos Aires Querido
  132. Homes with Cable TV in Latin America Trends in Latin American networking
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